WEBSTERrCOOLEY LANGUAGE SERIES 



THE ELEMENTS 
OF ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR 



PE 1111 




WILLIAM 

FRANK 
WEBSTEI\ 




Class _"PJEJill_ 

Book. \N A 



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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: 



WEBSTER-COOLEY LANGUAGE SERIES 

THE ELEMENTS OF 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

BY 

W. F. WEBSTER 

Principal of the East High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 
ASSISTED BY 

ALICE WOODWORTH COOLEY 







HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 

Boston : 4 Park Street ; New York : 85 Fifth Avenue 

Chicago : 378-388 Wabash Avenue 



t£ (Ill 



As 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two Copies Received 

JUN 4 1904 

Copyright Entry 

CCASS fs XXc. No. 

884*8^ 

COPY B 






\ 



COPYRIGHT, I904, BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



THE ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH 
GRAMMAR. 



PART L 

AN IDEA. 

1. All have probably played a very common game 
called " Twenty Questions," or " Yes and No." You 
remember that one person leaves the room, while other 
members of the party agree upon an object which the first 
is to find out by asking twenty questions, to be answered 
by " Yes " or "No." Suppose that .the person has come 
back into the room to begin his questioning. His first 
inquiry is, " Is it large ? " The answer is, " No." " Is 
it pretty ? " " Yes." " Is it expensive ? " " Yes." " Is 
it useful?" "Yes." " Is it ornamental ? " "Yes." "Is it 
made of gold ? " " Yes." And so he goes on, until he 
learns that it is small, pretty, expensive, useful, orna- 
mental, made of gold, — at last, a watch. 

Each person in the room had seen the watch selected, 
and knew just how it looked. In his mind he had a 
picture of this watch. This mental picture is called an 
idea. His idea of the watch was of an object, small, 
pretty, expensive, useful, ornamental, made of gold. The 
questioner found out these qualities, or attributes, one at 
a time ; then he put them together and built up for him- 
self the picture of a watch. This picture in his mind, or 
this idea, of the watch is made of the sum of its attributes, 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

or qualities. And so it is with the idea of every object ; 
it is made from the sum of the attributes that describe it. 

EXERCISE. 

2. Name five attributes of each of the following objects. 
Be sure to select those which, when added together, will 
make a good mental picture of the object. 

Sea, sky, forest, stream, plain, cloud, ice, steam, smoke, stone. 

EXERCISE. 

3. On a small piece of paper write the names of ten 
attributes of an object. Select good ones. Be sure not 
to name the object. Exchange these slips. Each may 
then tell the name of the object described on the slip of 
paper he has. 

A SENTENCE. 

4. When in the game the question was asked, " Is it 
large ? " each person thought, " The watch is small." He 
united the idea which he had of the object with the idea 
of smallness. Such a union of two ideas makes a thought. 
And when this thought is expressed in words, these words 
form a sentence. "The watch is small," then, is a sen- 
tence. 

In the sentence, "A watch is small," the word " watch " 
names that of which something is thought and said ; it is 
called the subject of the sentence. The word "small" 
tells what attribute is asserted or predicated * of the sub- 
ject " watch " ; it is called the predicate attribute of the 
sentence. The word " is " asserts the relation existing 
between the subject and the predicate attribute. It is 
used to link, or couple, the subject and the predicate 
attribute ; it is called the copula. 1 

1 For the primary meaning of these words see the dictionary. These 
primary definitions will help you to understand what these words mean in 
grammar. 



A SENTENCE 3 

First, then, there are objects — real things. Next 
there are mental pictures of these objects, called ideas, 
each made up of a number of attributes. Third, there is 
a union of the two ideas named by the subject and the 
predicate attribute, making a thought. The union is 
made by the copula. And fourth, there is a statement 
of this thought in words, making a sentence. 

A SENTENCE IS THE EXPRESSION OF A COMPLETE THOUGHT 
IN WORDS. 

Every thought is made of three parts ; and every sen- 
tence, representing a thought, must contain these three ele- 
ments : subject, copula, and predicate attribute. 

THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE NAMES THAT OF WHICH SOME- 
THING IS ASSERTED. 

THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE OF A SENTENCE NAMES THAT 
WHICH IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT. 

THE COPULA OF A SENTENCE IS THE WORD OR GROUP OF 
WORDS THAT ASSERTS THE RELATION BETWEEN THE SUBJECT 
AND THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

EXERCISE. 

5. In each of the following sentences, select the sub- 
ject, predicate attribute, and copula. 

1. The Amazon is broad. 

2. Plains are level. 

3. The Himalaya Mountains are high. 

4. The Indians were friendly. 

5. The settlers became suspicious. 

6. Their arrows were poisoned. 

7. The colonists grew fearful. 

8. Flowers are beautiful. 

9. The rose is fragrant. 

10. Pines are healthful. 

11. The forest is peaceful. 

12. The sea looks rough, 

13. Sea-breezes are refreshing. 

14. The frost is here. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

15. The woods are sere. 23. Holmes was humorous. 

16. The blue jay is noisy. 24. Emerson was wise. 

17. Living is loving. 25. Lowell was witty. 

18. A child will be happy. 26. Charity is beautiful. 

19. The student becomes wise. 27. Stinginess is ugly. 

20. Beethoven was deaf. 28. Courage is noble. 

21. Milton was blind. 29. Wrestling is exciting. 

22. Byron was lame. 30. Singing is enjoyable. 

EXERCISE. 

6. Supply copulas and predicate attributes to the fol- 
lowing subjects. 

1. My mother 6. The leaves 

2. The birds 7. Warships 

3. Dickens 8. Rover 

4. Trees 9. New York 

5. Rivers 10. A graceful spire 

EXERCISE. 

7. Supply copulas and subjects to the following predi- 
cate attributes. 

1. easy 6. wide 

2. high 7. helpful 

3. brilliant 8. light 

4. noble 9. jolly 

5. expensive 10. honorable 

NOUNS. 

8. In Section 5, think what each subject names. Tell 
which subjects name persons ; actions ; qualities of mind ; 
objects in nature. 

Though these words are not all names of things which 
we can see, hear, or know through the senses, they are all 
names of things about which we can think. These words 
are nouns. 

A NOUN IS A WOED THAT NAMES A SUBJECT OF THOUGHT. 
Which of the nouns in Section 5 point out one particu- 



PRONOUNS 5 

lar person, one individual ? Which name any one of a 
large class of objects ? 

In the sentence " Victoria was a beloved queen," the 
noun "Victoria" points out one individual; the word 
" Victoria " is a proper noun. The word " queen " is the 
name common to all persons of that class ; the word 
" queen " is a common noun. 

A COMMON NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES ANY ONE OF A 
CLASS. 

A PROPER NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES AN INDIVIDUAL 
TO DISTINGUISH IT FROM OTHERS OF THE CLASS TO WHICH IT 
BELONGS. 

EXERCISE. 

9. In Sections 5 and 6, select and classify the nouns. 
Give the reason for calling each word a noun, and the 
reason for placing it in the class you do. This exercise 
may be continued with other lessons, until you are certain 
of nouns and their classification. 

PRONOUNS. 

10. (a) Watt invented the steam engine, but he did not perfect it. 

(b) To be honest under all circumstances is difficult, but it 

always pays. 

(c) It had been proved that the earth is round, and this led 

adventurers to seek their fortunes in unknown seas. 

(d) Blessed is that man -who has found his work. 

What word in (a) represents the noun "Watt without naming it ? 
What word means steam engine, but does not name it ? Neither 
of the words you have named is a noun, because neither names a 
subject of thought, though each represents a subject of thought. In 
(b) what word stands for the words " To be honest under all cir- 
cumstances " ? This little word does not name the idea which it 
represents. State the fact which the word this represents in (c). 
What word in (d) represents a subject of thought without naming it 
as a noun does ? These words are all pronouns. 1 

The difference between nouns and pronouns may be understood if 

1 Look in a dictionary for the primary meaning of the prefix pro. 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

you keep in mind the fact that when a noun stands all alone, it names 
a definite idea. "Football," for example, names a very popular 
game ; " Benedict Arnold " names a very unpopular man. These 
words are nouns. u It " or " that " or " they " does not suggest im- 
mediately any definite subject of thought. " I do not care for it " 
may mean " 1 do not care for some dish at table, or for football, or 
for one of a thousand other things." If the word " it " should be 
seen in a letter about a play, the word would probably stand for the 
" play." A noun names a subject of thought ; but a pronoun does 
not name a subject of thought ; it only represents it. 

A PRONOUN IS A WORD THAT REPRESENTS A SUBJECT OF 
THOUGHT, BUT DOES NOT NAME IT. 

EXERCISE. 

11. Select the nouns and pronouns in the following 
sentences. 

1. If you would be well served, you must serve yourself. 

2. Placing her hand on the cushion, her foot in the hand of her 

husband, 
Gayly, with joyous laugh, Priscilla mounted her palfrey. 

3. Drive thy business, or it will drive thee. 

4. " Nothing is wanting now," he said, with a smile, " but the dis- 

taff ; 
Then you would be in truth my queen, my beautiful Bertha." 

5. Every hour has its task or pleasure. 

6. Down through the golden leaves the sun was pouring his splen- 

dor. 

7. The little meadow violet lifts its cup of blue. 

8. We deceive ourselves oftener than others deceive us. 

9. The stream wears a smooth bed for itself. 

10. Onward the bridal procession now moved to their new habita- 

tion. 

11. For he who fights and runs away 
May live to fight another day. 

12. Oh, sleep ! it is a gentle thing, 

Beloved from pole to pole. 

13. Here 's a sigh to those who love me, 

And a smile to those who hate. 

14. He, who ascends to mountain-tops, shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 7 

15. He was chubby and plump — a right jolly old elf ; 
I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself ; 
A wink of his eye, and a twist of his head, 
Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread. 

He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle, 
And away they all flew like the down of a thistle. 

EXERCISE. 

12. Frame ten sentences, using the following words as 
pronouns : I, themselves, that, which, whom, it, her, 
this, my, him. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

13. Classify the nouns in the next paragraph as com- 
mon or proper, giving the reason for your classification. 
Select the pronouns, and name the word which each repre- 
sents. 

Finally, however, among these hunters one arose whose wander- 
ings were to bear fruit ; who was destined to lead through the wil- 
derness the first body of settlers that ever established a community in 
the far west, completely cut off from the seaboard colonies. This 
was Daniel Boone. He was born in Pennsylvania in 1734, but when 
only a boy had been brought with the rest of the family to the banks 
of the Yadkin in North Carolina. Here he grew up ; and as soon as 
he came of age he married, built a log hut, and made a clearing, 
whereon to farm like the rest of his backwoods neighbors. They all 
tilled their own clearings, guiding the plough among the charred 
stumps left when the trees were chopped down and the land burned 
over, and they were all, as a matter of course, hunters. With Boone 
hunting and exploration were passions, and the lonely life of the wil- 
derness, with its bold, wild freedom, the only existence for which he 
cared. He was a tall, spare, sinewy man, with eyes like an eagle's 
and muscles that never tired ; the toil and hardship of his life made 
no impress on his iron frame, unhurt by intemperance of any kind, 
and he lived for eighty-six years, a backwoods hunter to the end of 
his days. His thoughtful, quiet, pleasant face, so often portrayed, is 
familiar to every one ; it was the face of a man who never blustered 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

or bullied, who would neither inflict nor suffer any wrong, and 
who had a limitless fund of fortitude, endurance, and indomitable 
resolution upon which to draw when fortune proved adverse. His 
self-command and patience, his daring, restless love of adventure, 
and, in time of danger, his absolute trust in his own powers and 
resources, all combined to render him peculiarly fitted to follow the 
career of which he was so fond. 

Roosevelt, from The Winning of the West. 

KINDS OF PREDICATE ATTRIBUTES. 

14. In Section 5, point out the words that denote qual- 
ities of objects. Most of the attributes there asserted of 
the subjects of thought are qualities. Study the following 
sentences, to learn what other ideas the predicate attribute 
may denote. Point out those that denote action ; condi- 
tion. 

(a) Bees are humming. 

(b) The waves are dancing. 

(c) That wonderful child is Helen Keller. 

(d) The cut flowers are "withered. 

(e) The uncut flowers remain fresh. 

(f) Lafayette was a Frenchman. 

(g) The Washington Elm was in Cambridge, 
(h) It is decaying. 

(i) St. Paul's Cathedral is a famous church. 

(j) The builder was Christopher Wren. 

(k) The sky is blue. 

(1) Easter lilies are "white. 

(m) Dutch shoes are of wood. 

(n) Dutch shoes are wooden. 

(o) That peculiar flower is an orchid. 

(p) Rembrandt was an artist. 

In sentence (c), what words tell what child it is, or identify the 
child ? In sentence (o), what word is used to identify the flower ? 
A word used as a predicate attribute to identify the subject 
is called an attribute of identification. What word classifies 
Lafayette as to his nationality, or tells in what class to place him ? 
Rembrandt, as to his profession ? Such an attribute shows in 



KINDS OF PREDICATE ATTRIBUTES 9 

what class to place the subject, and is called an attribute of 
classification. In (n), what attribute is asserted of Dutch shoes ? 
Is the same attribute asserted in (m) ? By what words ? In (g), 
what attribute is asserted of the "Washington Elm ? By what 
words ? It may take a group of "words to make the predi- 
cate attribute. Point out the words in the sentences that express 
attributes of color ; of location or position ; of identification ; of 
classification; of material. 

These predicate attributes — of quality, action, condition, iden- 
tification, classification, and material — are the commonest at- 
tributes. This list or any other list is but partial; and it is best 
for each pupil to name the attributes as he finds them. 

It should be understood that when a noun is used as a predicate 
attribute, all the attributes or qualities that together make up the 
idea named by the noun are asserted of the subject. In the sentence, 
" Jack is funny," only one attribute is asserted of " Jack." But in 
the sentence " Jack is a boy," all the attributes that together make 
up the idea of " boy" are asserted of " Jack"; for example, Jack 
is young, small, lively, talkative, boastful, generous, and all the other 
qualities that together make up the idea of a real boy. Nouns used 
to name attributes in most cases name an attribute of classification 
or identification ; as Helen Keller and Frenchman in the sen- 
tences above. (See Section 1.) 



EXERCISE. 

15. In the following sentences, select the subjects, pre- 
dicate attributes, and copulas. Tell what each of the 
attributes denotes. In studying the lesson it would be 
well to ask yourself these questions : — 

1. What is the sentence about? 

2. What names the subject of thought ? 

3. What does the sentence tell me about the subject of 

thought ? 

4. What word or words join the subject with the predi- 

cate attribute, and make the assertion ? 

The answer to the second question is the subject of the 
sentence ; the answer to the third is the attribute ; and the 
answer to the fourth is the copula. 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1. Cathedrals are impressive. 

2. The clouds are fleecy. 

3. A musical voice is a delight. 

4. These sentences seem short. 

5. The lesson is easy. 

6. The garden will be gay. 

7. Berries will be plentiful. 

8. The cloudy sky is sad and gray. 

9. The white birch is a beautiful tree. 

10. Violets and dandelions are in bloom. 

11. November woods are bare and still. 

12. An icy hand is on the land. 

13. Oliver Cromwell was an Englishman. 

14. That sweet-faced woman is Frances Willard. 

15. Truth is within ourselves. 

16. The year is at the spring. 

17. Day is at the morn. 

18. The lark is on the wing. 

19. God is in His world. 

20. Silence is a great peacemaker. 

21. Helen Hunt Jackson was the Indian's friend. 

22. " Ramona " is her greatest novel. 

23. The warmest coats are of fur. 

24. The finest churches are of stone. 

25. The bird of Paradise is of glorious plumage. 

A GROUP OF WORDS AS PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

16. In Section 15, tell which predicate attributes are 
expressed by a single word. Point out each group of 
words used to express the predicate attribute of the sen- 
tence. Tell which groups of words denote quality. Which 
denote position or location ? material ? condition ? identi- 
fication? The predicate attribute, then, may be a 
single word or a group of words. 

EXERCISE. 

17. Separate the sentences below into their three ele- 
ments : subject, copula, and predicate attribute. 



A GROUP OF WORDS AS THE SUBJECT 11 

Model. " Example is the school of mankind " is a sentence, 
because it is the expression of a complete thought in words. 

" Example " is the subject, because it names that of which some- 
thing is asserted. 

" The school of mankind " is the predicate attribute, because it 
names that which is asserted of the subject. 

" Is " is the copula, because it asserts the relation between the 
subject and the predicate attribute. 

Written Analysis. 



SUBJECT. 


COPULA. 


PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 


Example 


is 


the school of mankind. 


Edison 


is 


a great inventor. 



1. Edison is a great inventor. 

2. Mahogany is a beautiful wood. 

3. Florence Nightingale was a noble woman. 

4. Automobiles are a recent invention. 

5. Lowell was the son of a minister. 

6. Pennsylvania is the coal-bin of the United States, 

7. Rome was the capital of the world. 

8. Lew Wallace is the author of " Ben Hur." 

9. Shakespeare is the greatest author of all time. 

10. Gold is the standard of the world's money. 

11. Some questions are difficult to answer. 

12. Every flower is a hint of God's beauty. 

13. No good thing is failure. 

14. No bad thing is success. 

A GROUP OF WORDS AS THE SUBJECT. 

18. In the sentences of the preceding lessons, the sub- 
jects have been nouns or pronouns. Study the sentences 
in this lesson to find whether the subject is always a noun 
or a pronoun. 

(a) To be up and doing is a joy. 

(b) "Whatever Abraham Lincoln said was earnest and sin- 

cere. 

(c) To feel an honest joy at the success of another is noble. 

I ofC. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In (a), of what is the assertion made that it is a joy? What 
words, then, express the subject of the thought ? Is there a noun in 
the subject ? In (b), the assertion is that something was earnest 
and sincere. What ? Repeat the group of words used to express 
the subject of the thought. What does (c) assert is noble ? What, 
then, is the subject of the sentence ? 

So, just as a group of words may form the predicate at- 
tribute of a sentence, a group of words may make the sub- 
ject of a sentence. 

EXERCISE. 

19. Give both the oral and the written analysis of the 
sentences below, following the model in Section 17. 

What is the sentence about ? 
What is asserted of the subject ? 

What word joins the subject with the predicate attri- 
bute? 

1. Well begun is good. 

2. Well done is better. 

3. To catch fish in a tub is unsportsmanlike. 

4. What Washington did was wise. 

5. To guess and to know are two different things. 

6. Doing nothing for others is the undoing of ourselves. 

7. Not to weep over a dish of peeled onions is difficult. 

8. To gossip about one's neighbors is a common, but contemp- 

tible fault. 

9. To be angry with a door or a woodbox is boy like. 

10. The best preparation for good work to-morrow is to do good 

work to-day. 

11. To know all is to forgive all. 

EXERCISE. 

20. Write five sensible sentences, with copulas and 
predicate attributes, and with nouns as subjects. Write 
five more with groups of words as subjects. Be ready- 
to separate these sentences into their three elements. 



COPULA AND PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 13 



COPULA AND PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 



21. (a) The brook is murmuring. 

(b) The waters are dancing. 

(c) A storm "was raging. 

(d) Twilight is deepening. 

(e) The owl is hooting. 



(f ) The brook murmurs. 

(g) The waters dance, 
(h) A storm raged, 
(i) Twilight deepens, 
(j) The owl hoots. 



In (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e), point out each copula and each pre- 
dicate attribute, two separate words in each sentence. Opposite each 
sentence is another which asserts the same predicate attribute of the 
same subject. In (f), the attribute, murmuring, is asserted of the 
brook just as truly as in (a). In (g), what is asserted of the sub- 
ject ? In (h) ? (i) ? (j) ? What one word, then, in each of the last 
five sentences, both asserts and tells what attribute is asserted ? 
Since each of these "words is both copula and predicate attri- 
bute, it may be called a copula-attribute. 

The union of the copula with the predicate attribute 
gives a new type of sentence. So far the sentences have 
contained the three elements of a sentence sep- second Typo 
arately, — subject, copula, and predicate attri- of Sentence 
bute. The three elements are to be found in these sen- 
tences of the second type as in the first ; but the differ- 
ence is this, — that in the second type of sentence the 
copula and the predicate attribute are united in one 
word. 
First Type. subject. copula. 

The tide was rising. 

The wind is rising. 



PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 



Second Type. 



subject. 
The tide 
The wind 



COPULA- ATTRIBUTE. 

rose, 
rises. 



EXERCISE. 

22. Unite the copula and the predicate attribute of 
each of the following sentences into one word. Analyze 
the sentences you have made, using the following model. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Model. " The boy runs " is a sentence, because it is the expres- 
sion of a complete thought in words. 

" The boy " is the subject, because it names that of which some- 
thing is asserted. 

" Runs" is the copula-attribute, because it asserts and tells what 
is asserted of the subject. 

1. Mozart was composing. 11. The snow is melting. 

2. Raphael was painting. 12. The church was burning. 

3. Angelo was designing. 13. The fog was thickening. 

4. We are reciting. 14. The whistle was blowing. 

5. The tide was rising. 15. Danger was threatening. 

6. Rain was falling. 16. The enemy was retreating. 

7. Washington was praying. 17. The settlers are returning. 

8. Trees are growing. 18. Men are working. 

9. Maize is sprouting. 19. Women were weeping. 
10. The bells are ringing. 20. Duty is calling. 

VERBS. 

23. (a) The sky is clouded. 

(b) The clouds seem threatening. 

(c) The wind "whistles. 

(d) The rain -will be welcome. 

(e) The old man's hair is white. 

(f) He smiles. 

(g) His smile is sunny. 

(h) His journey's end seems near. 

All these sentences contain subject, copula, and predicate attribute. 
In two of the sentences given, the word that asserts also tells what 
is asserted. Read the two sentences, and point out the word in each 
that asserts and also contains the predicate attribute. In each of the 
other sentences, point out the word or the group of words that asserts 
the relation between the subject and the predicate attribute. Is it 
possible to make a sentence without a word that asserts ? A "word 
used to assert, -whether it does or does not contain the pre 
dicate attribute, is called a verb. 1 

In the sentences at the head of this lesson, which verbs are used 

1 Look in a dictionary for the derivation of the word verb. Do you 
know any reason why this name should be selected for the asserting word 
of a sentence ? 



VERBS 15 

to unite the words denoting the subject and the predicate attri- 
bute ? 

When the principal use of a verb is that of copula, it is 
called a copulative verb. 

Most copulative verbs do some other work beside uniting the sub- 
ject and predicate attribute. Is, in its various forms, is the only- 
verb -whose use may be solely to connect the subject and 
predicate attribute ; it is generally a pure copula. 

Seem in (b) does more than connect the subject and the predicate 
attribute ; it does not say that clouds are threatening. It makes a mod- 
ified assertion. So all copulative verbs except is do something more 
than connect subject and predicate attribute. But their principal 
work is to connect. For this reason they are called copulative verbs. 

In (c), what is the attribute asserted of the wind ? In (f), what 
attribute is asserted of the subject ? The verb in each of these sen- 
tences is both copula and predicate attribute. When the verb 
itself contains the predicate attribute, it is called an attribu- 
tive verb. 

Whenever the copula and the predicate attribute are different 
words, the verb is copulative. When they are united in one word, 
the verb is attributive. 

In which sentence do you find more than one word used to make 
the assertion ? A group of -words, then, may be used just like 
a single word in making an assertion. Such a group is called 
a verb-phrase. 

A VERB IS A WORD THAT ASSERTS. 

A VERB-PHRASE IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT ASSERTS. 
In saying that a verb is a "word that asserts, it is intended 
to regard a question or a command as a kind of assertion. 

A COPULATIVE VERB IS ONE WHOSE PRINCIPAL USE IS THAT 
OE A COPULA. 

AN ATTRIBUTIVE VERB IS ONE THAT CONTAINS IN ITSELF A 
PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

Verb-phrases may be copulative or attributive exactly the 
same as verbs. 

EXERCISE. 

24. Make a list of five copulative verbs ; of ten attribu- 
tive verbs. Write five sensible sentences containing copu- 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

lative verbs ; three containing attributive verbs. Do not 
use any of the verbs you have put in your lists. 

Is a sentence of the first or second type when a copulative verb is 
used ? Is it of the first type when an attributive verb is used ? 

EXERCISE. 

25. Tell the types of the following sentences. Classify 
the verbs as copulative or attributive. If attributive, tell 
what attribute is asserted of the subject. 

1. The violet is sweet. 

2. Pocahontas was an Indian girl. 

3. To do one's best is worthy. 

4. The cost of crown jewels seems fabulous. 

5. That great men do silly things at times is true. 

6. Robins run. 

7. Woodpeckers climb. 

8. The monkey laughs. 

9. The sun sets. 

10. The wind dies. 

11. The world seems silent. 

12. President Roosevelt works. 

13. He is a fighter. 

14. The horse is dead. 

15. The horse seems dead. 

16. The cock is crowing, 
The stream is flowing, 
The small birds twitter, 
The lake doth glitter, 

The green field sleeps in the sun. 

COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS. 

26. There are other ways of grouping, or classifying, 
verbs than as copulative and attributive. There is also 
another name for the predicate attribute. A brief review 
of a few points already learned will show the meaning of 
the new terms. 



COMPLEMENTS 17 

EXERCISE, 

27. Write in two groups the sentences in Section 25. 
In one group, write the sentences of the first type ; in the 
other, the sentences of the second type. 

Name the three elements that every sentence must contain. You 
have learned that not one of these can be omitted. What two ele- 
ments are combined in one word in the sentences of the second type ? 
What name is given to it as an element of the sentence ? In such 
sentences the verb alone makes a complete assertion about 
the subject. Such a verb is called a verb of complete predi- 
cation, or a complete verb. 

Point out the verb in each sentence of the first type. In these 
sentences, does the verb tell what is asserted of the subject ? In 
other words, does it contain the predicate attribute ? Read these 
sentences aloud, omitting all of the words that follow the verb. It 
is evident that each sentence then lacks one of the three necessary 
elements of every sentence : it has no predicate attribute. The 
verb alone does not make the complete assertion about the 
subject. Such a verb is called a verb of incomplete predi- 
cation, or an incomplete verb. Verb-phrases may be com- 
plete or incomplete the same as verbs. 

COMPLEMENTS. 

28. In the sentences used in the preceding exercise, 
point out the words used to complete the meaning of the 
incomplete verbs. 

It is plain that a third element must always be added to the in- 
complete verb to tell what is asserted of the subject. Since this 
element is a completer of the verb, it is called a complement. 

In all sentences of the first type, is the verb copulative or attribu- 
tive ? complete or incomplete ? Since in all sentences of this type 
the complement of the verb names an attribute of the subject, it is 
called an attribute complement. Up to this time, this element of 
a sentence has been called a predicate attribute. It is the same 
element under different names. 

Point out the attribute complements, or predicate attributes, in the 
sentences in Sections 5 and 25. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

AN ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SEN- 
TENCE THAT COMPLETES THE ASSERTION MADE BY AN INCOM- 
PLETE VERB, AND NAMES AN ATTRIBUTE OF THE SUBJECT. 

EXERCISE. 

29. Analyze the sentences below, following the model 
in Section 17. Use the term attribute complement in- 
stead of predicate attribute. Next classify the verbs and 
verb-phrases as complete or incomplete, copulative or 
attributive. 

Is a copulative verb always incomplete ? 

1. Experience is expensive. 

2. The plays of Shakespeare are instructive. 

3. To talk with great men is a liberal education. 

4. Honesty is the best policy. 

5. Rubies are scarce. 

6. Good manners are a source of wealth. 

7. To study the stars is fascinating. 

8. What time we sleep is well spent. 

9. To use a dictionary is a sign of culture. 

10. Snow is delicate crystals. 

11. To cheat an ignorant man is dishonorable cowardice. 

12. The way was pathless and long. 

13. The goal was more dreary yet. 

14. Their only food was a pittance of Indian corn. 

15. The way was through the dense forest. 

THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

30. (a) Many hands make light "work. 

(b) March brings "wind. 

(c) April brings showers. 

(d) April showers bring May flowers. 

(e) Longfellow wrote Hiawatha. 

(f) He loved children. 

(g) Morse invented the telegraph, 
(h) The farmer sows the seed. 

(i) He reaps the harvest. 

(j) The dead leaves fall. 

(k) The nightingale's notes close the eye of day. 



THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT 19 

In the sentences in this lesson, there is only one complete verb. 
Find it. Point out the incomplete verb in each of the other sen- 
tences. Show that each is an attributive verb. Tell what words are 
used to complete the meaning of each. Since the verb in each sen- 
tence contains the predicate attribute, the complement cannot be an 
attribute complement. Show that each of these complements names 
the receiver of the action asserted by the verb. Such a complement 
is called an object complement. 1 

AN OBJECT COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SENTENCE 
THAT COMPLETES THE ASSERTION MADE BY AN INCOMPLETE 
VERB, AND NAMES THE RECEIVER OF THE ACTION. 

Note. — There are a few transitive verbs whose meaning is such 
that their object complements do not in the ordinary sense receive 
the action asserted; as in the sentences, "I have my lesson," "April 
brings flowers." In such sentences, however, the action which the 
verb asserts passes over to the object complement as it does in all 
other cases, and in a grammatical sense the object complement re- 
ceives it. 

A sentence containing subject, copula-attribute, and 
object complement is a sentence of the third 
type. The predicate of a sentence of the third of sien- 

x . . tence. 

type is composed of copula-attribute and object 
complement. 

Third Type. 

copula- object 

subject. attribute. complement. 

The nightingale's notes close the eye of day. 

What elements make the first type of sentence ? the second ? 

EXERCISE. 

31. Write five sensible sentences of the first type. 
Find five sentences of the second type. Frame five sen- 
tences of the third type, in which the following words 
shall be used as object complements : honor, Cape Horn, 
the stars, rainbow, Alexander Hamilton. 

1 Look in a dictionary and learn the meaning of the Latin words from 
which the word object is derived. 



Third Type 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXEBCISE. 

32. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. From this time the sentences of an exercise will 
not be of any one type. Look out for all kinds of sen- 
tences. 

Model. " The nightingale's notes close the eye of day " is a sen- 
tence, because . . . 

" The nightingale's notes " is the subject, because . . . 

" Close " is the copula-attribute, because . . . 

" The eye of day " is the object complement, because it completes 
the assertion made by an incomplete verb, and names the receiver of 
the action. 

Model for Written Analysis. 

Subject The nightingale's notes 

Copula- Attribute close 

Object Complement the eye of day. 

(In this section, and others throughout the book, more sentences 
are given for analysis than may be needed. Use only enough to fix 
the principles to be established.) 

1. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. 

2. The moon causes the tides. 

3. Edison invented the phonograph. 

4. Many persons inherit wealth. 

5. They are considered lucky. 

6. Their wealth may be a misfortune. 

7. Gladstone was an eminent scholar. 

8. Pocahontas saved Captain John Smith. 

9. Louis XIV was a spendthrift. 

10. Health is man's greatest wealth. 

11. The real heroes of the war are the "great, brave, patient, 

nameless PEOPLE." 

12. The sweetest type of heaven is home. 

13. Every great thought alters the world. 

14. The top of honor is a slippery place. 

15. The unfinished is nothing. 

16. One spring wind unbinds the mountain snow. 

17. The great mind knows the power of gentleness. 

18. A small leak will sink a ship. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 21 

19. Kindness shall win my love. 

20. The old clock of the town 
Strikes night's last hour. The morning's crown 
Touches the silence. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

33. (a) The little boys ■will cull the cowslip posies. 

(b) The cowslip posies "will be culled by the little boys. 

(c) Autumn paints the maples. 

(d) The maples are painted by Autumn. 

(e) The artist reveals beauty. 

(f) Beauty is revealed by the artist. 

(g) The bluebirds sing sweet songs of spring. 

(h) Sweet songs of spring are sung by the bluebirds. 

(i) Fresh winds purify the air. 

(j) The air is purified by fresh winds. 

Have both sentences of each pair the same meaning ? In both, is 
the action done by the same persons or things ? Show that each verb 
asserts an action received by an object. In which sentence of each 
pair does the object complement name the receiver of the action ? 
In the other sentence, the same receiver of the same action is named 
by what element ? 

Since all these verbs assert actions received by objects, 
all are called transitive verbs. 1 In the sen- Translt i V e 
tences, the receiver of the action is named by Verts - 
the subject or by the object complement. A verb is transi- 
tive, then, if the subject or the object complement names 
the receiver of the action asserted. 

Not all verbs assert action ; and of those that do, not 
all assert action received by an object. If a intrant 
verb does not assert action received by an ob- tive Verl)S ' 
ject, it is not transitive, and is called an intransitive 
verb. Study the following sentences. 

1 Look in a dictionary for the primary meaning of the word transi- 
tive. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(a) The laughing streams awake. 

(b) They were sleeping. 

(c) Our mother was a beautiful girl. 

(d) Her word is truth. 

(e) A loviug spirit attracts. 

(f) Friends cheer. 

(g) Coleridge talked, 
(h) Parrots chatter. 

Point out the five verbs that assert action. Is the action asserted 
by any one of them received by an object ? Point out the three 
verbs that do not assert action. Are these verbs, then, transitive or 
intransitive ? 

A TKANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT ASSERTS AN ACTION RE- 
CEIVED BY AN OBJECT, WHICH IS NAMED BY THE SUBJECT OR 
THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

(See note to definition of object complement.) 

AN INTRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT DOES NOT ASSERT AN 
ACTION RECEIVED BY AN OBJECT. 

Verb-phrases may be transitive or intransitive the same 
as verbs. 

When the subject names the doer of the action, the 
Voice verb * s sa ^ *° b e in the active voice. 

passive* 4 When the subject names the receiver of the ac- 
tion, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. 

EXERCISE. 

34. In the following sentences, note the two uses of 
the same verb. 

(a) The fire burned in the grate. 

(b) The fire burned the child's fingers. 

(c) The child's fingers were burned by the fire. 

(d) Millet painted. 

(e) He painted the Angelus. 

(f ) The Angelus was painted by Millet. 

(g) Shakespeare wrote. 

(h) He wrote the world's greatest dramas. 

(i) The world's greatest dramas were written by Shakespeare. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 23 

In which of the sentences are the verbs in the active voice ? in the 
passive voice ? Why ? 

Which verbs are transitive ? Which intransitive ? Give reason 
in each case. The use, then, is what makes the verb transitive 
or intransitive. 

In the active voice, is a transitive verb complete ? Is it attribu- 
tive ? Is an intransitive verb always complete ? Is a copulative 
verb ever complete ? May an attributive verb be either transitive 
or intransitive ? Show by examples that your answers are correct. 

EXERCISE. 

35. Classify the verbs in the following sentences as 
copulative or attributive, complete or incomplete, transi- 
tive or intransitive. If a verb is transitive, tell in which 
voice it is. 

1. Wagner wrote " Lohengrin." 

2. Braddock was defeated by the Indians. 

3. He was a haughty man. 

4. He scorned Washington's advice. 

5. King John became very cruel. 

6. The little princes were smothered in the Tower. 

7. Arthur died in a castle in France. 

8. Music refines the soul. 

9. Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world. 

10. Many sonatas were composed by Beethoven. 

11. Beethoven became deaf in middle life. 

12. Mozart wrote his first music at the age of five. 

13. His last great piece was rehearsed before him on the night of 

his death. 

14. Most great composers have been poor. 

15. Their pains and pleasures are heard in their music. 

16. The orient sun scattered the morning mists. 

17. King Alfred watched the cakes in the peasant's house. 

18. Ill habits gather by unseen degrees, 

As brooks make rivers, rivers run to seas. 

19. Our thoughts are heard in heaven. 

20. Ill deeds are doubled with an evil word. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

STUDY OF FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 

36. (a) Morse invented the telegraph. 

(b) The telegraph "was invented by Morse. 

(c) The Christmas message teaches brotherhood. 

(d) Brotherhood is taught by the Christmas message. 

(e) The sun cheers the whole world. 

(f) The whole world is cheered by the sun. 

(g) A small force held Fort Sumter. 

(h) Fort Sumter was held by a small force. 

(i) Birds build wonderful nests. 

(j) Wonderful nests are built by birds. 

Read each sentence in which the verb is in the passive voice. 
Read each group of words denoting the doer of the action asserted 
by each verb in the passive voice. What is the first word of each 
group ? Read each sentence in which the verb is in the active voice. 
What element of the sentence names the doer of the action when 
the verb is in the active voice ? 

In (a), (c), (e), (g), and (i), the verbs are all in the active voice. 
With these verbs, what element names the receiver of the action ? 
In (b), (d), (f), (h), and (j), the verbs are all in the passive voice. 
With these verbs, what element names the receiver of the action ? 

In Section 25, are there any intransitive attributive verbs that 
assert action ? Which ? Does the subject of each of these sentences 
name the doer of the action ? Then is the verb in the active voice ? 
Can you change the verbs in Section 25 to the passive voice ? 

A VERB IS IN THE ACTIVE VOICE WHEN ITS SUBJECT NAMES 
THE DOER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

A VERB IS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE WHEN ITS SUBJECT NAMES 
THE RECEIVER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

All transitive verbs may be used in both the active and 
the passive voice. Intransitive attributive verbs asserting 
actions may be in the active voice ; but they can never be in 
the passive voice. 

EXERCISE. 

37. Ee-write the sentences (k), (1), (m), (n), and (o), 
changing the verb to the passive voice. Tell what other 
changes you have made. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 25 

(k) The cat in gloves catches no mice. 

(1) A copy of Wordsworth's poems influenced Bryant's whole 

life, 
(m) Reading Burns influenced Whittier's life, 
(n) Lowell's father planted many elms, 
(o) Their branches now shade the broad street. 

When a sentence with the verb in the active voice is 
changed to a sentence with the verb in the passive voice, 
the object complement is usually made the subject ; and 
the doer of the action is expressed by the group of words 
introduced by the word by. 

EXEKCISE. 

38. Form sentences having these words in the active 
voice : love, will expel, has entertained, had carried, 
sank, criticise, shall lead, teaches, lowered, defeated. 

Change the sentences you have formed to sentences 
containing the same verbs in the passive voice. 

EXERCISE. 

39. Write sentences using the following words as ob- 
ject complements. Write another set of sentences using 
the same nouns as subjects. Do not have these two sets 
of sentences express the same thoughts. Longfellow, 
courage, snow, words, hunting, growth, education, 
branches, parrots, worth. 

THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. 

40. The following sentences show that the meaning of 
a sentence may be changed by changing the order of the 
words. In one sentence of each group as given below is 
an element not yet studied. 

(a) Tom Sawyer painted the fence "white. 

(b) Tom Sawyer painted the white fence. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(c) Spring rains wash the gardens clean. 

(d) Spring rains wash the clean gardens. 

(e) Snow turns the brown fields white. 

(f) Snow turns the brown "white fields. 

(g) A smile makes a sad heart glad, 
(h) A smile makes a glad sad heart, 
(i) David anointed Solomon king, 
(j) David anointed King Solomon. 

Do the two sentences of each group contain the same words ? 
Have they the same meaning ? Which sentence, (a) or (b), asserts 
that the fence was white as a result of the painting ? Which that 
it was white before it was painted ? What word in (c) and (d) de- 
notes the attribute of the gardens ? Which of the two sentences 
tells that this attribute is a result of the washing ? Show that the 
sentences (f) and (h) make impossible assertions. Show that the 
attribute of the object complement in (e) and in (g) is a result of 
the action expressed by the verb. Does (i) or (j) state a fact ? 
Show that one of the statements is untrue. 

If a word names an attribute of an object complement, 

and this attribute is the result of the action 
Objective 

Compie- asserted by the verb, it is called an objective 
ment. J 

complement. 

Two questions must be answered to determine whether 
a word is an objective complement : (1) Does the word 
name an attribute of the object complement? (2) 
Is this attribute the result of the action named by the 
verb ? If the word fulfils both these conditions, it is an 
objective complement. 

(a) I found the boy tired. 

(b) The work had made the boy tired. 

In both these sentences, " tired " is an attribute of " the 
boy," the object complement. In (a), the attribute "tired" 
is not the result of the action named by the verb ; there- 
fore it is not an objective complement. In (b), the 
attribute is the result of the action named by the verb ; 
therefore it is an objective complement. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 



27 



(c) Adversity made him humble. 

(d) Adversity (made humble) him. 

(e) Adversity humbled him. 

In (c) the verb " made " alone does not express the 
idea of the sentence. " Adversity made him " is not at 
all the thought intended. The verb "made" with the 
objective complement " humble " expresses the action 
upon him. This is seen in (d). This is just one action 
and can be expressed in one word, as it is in (e). So, 
too, the former sentence could be made to read " The 
work tired him," instead of " The work made him tired." 

AN OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SENTENCE 
THAT NAMES AN ATTRIBUTE 0E THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT, 
RESULTING FROM THE ACTION ASSERTED BY THE VERB. 

41. The objective complement is another ele- 
ment in a sentence, and gives us the fourth type Type of 



of sentence. 






oemeuce, 




COPULA- 


OBJECT 


OBJECTIVE 


SUBJECT. 


ATTRIBUTE. 


COMPLEMENT. 


COMPLEMENT. 


Adversity- 


made 


him 


humble. 


Congress 


rendered 


the plan 


useless. 


The death of the 








queen 


made 


Edward VII 


king. 



What are the other types of sentences ? When there is an objec- 
tive complement in a sentence, is the verb transitive or intransitive ? 
copulative or attributive ? Can there be an objective complement 
without an object complement ? What three elements form the 
predicate of a sentence of the fourth type ? 



EXERCISE. 

42. Analyze the sentences below according to the 
model. 

Model. " Adversity made him humble " is a sentence, because . . . 

" Adversity " is the subject, because . . . 

" Made " is the copula-attribute, because . . . 

" Him " is the object complement, because . . . 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

" Humble " is an objective complement, because it names an attri- 
bute of the object complement resulting from the action asserted by 
the verb. 

Written Analysis. 
Subject Adversity 

Copula-Attribute made 

Object Complement him 

Objective Complement humble 

1. He pumped the well dry. 

2. The boy bent the stick straight. 

3. Good fortune has made him a fool. 

4. True hope is swift. 

5. Gentians roll their fringes tight. 

6. Content makes poor men rich. 

7. Discontent makes rich men poor. 

8. The evening painted the snow a golden red. 

9. The mother made the child her idol. 

10. The people elected Johnson vice-president. 

11. The death of Lincoln made him president. 

12. Morning's laugh sets all the crags alight. 

13. A good carpenter planes boards smooth. 

TYPES OF SENTENCES. 

43. Write a sensible sentence of each of the four types. 

What elements are necessary to form the first type of sentence ? 
the second ? the third ? the fourth ? What kind of verb is in the 
first ? the second ? the third ? the fourth ? What elements are 
necessary in every sentence ? 

EXERCISE. 

44. Classify the following sentences according to the 
type, and give the elements of each which make it of the 
type you name. 

Classify the verbs as complete or incomplete, transitive 
or intransitive, copulative or attributive. 

1. A horse is a fine lady among animals. 

2. The voyage of the Mayflower proved a stormy one. 

3. The surf ran high. 



THE PREDICATE 29 

4. Iron is a manly metal. 

5. John van Eyck was the inventor of oil-painting. 

6. Nettle-seed needs no sowing. 

7. God made all pleasures innocent. 

8. A beautiful eye makes silence eloquent. 

9. An enraged eye makes beauty deformed. 

10. Kindness is the sunshine of the spiritual world. 

11. Education begins the gentleman. 

12. Reading, good company, and reflection finish him. 

13. The indulgence of revenge makes men savage and cruel. 

14. The greatest of virtues is common-sense. 

15. The day seems long. 

16. I am the very pink of courtesy. 

17. Hope lives. 

18. The jay, the rook, the daw, 
Aid the full concert. 

19. The love-lorn nightingale mourneth. 

20. A thing of beauty is a joy forever ; 
Its loveliness increases. 

21. I crown the winter king. 

22. Mont Blanc is crowned monarch of mountains. 



THE PREDICATE. 

45. You have learned that in every sentence there must 
be a subject, and there must be an assertion about the sub- 
ject. Recall the various forms of the assertion in different 
sentences. 

Write a sentence in which the assertion about the sub- 
ject contains only the two necessary elements, a copula 
and a predicate attribute. Write a second sentence in 
which the assertion contains not only these two necessary 
elements, but a third, an object complement. Write a 
third sentence in which the assertion contains not only 
these three elements, but also a fourth, an objective com- 
plement. One term, the predicate, is used for all the 
various forms of the assertion. 

Whatever is needed to make an assertion about a sub- 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ject, whether (1) copula and predicate attribute, or (2) 
copula-attribute, or (3) copula-attribute and object com- 
plement, or (4) copula-attribute, object complement, and 
The Pre- objective complement, — the whole assertion 
dicate. forms what is called the predicate of the sen- 
tence. In other words, the predicate includes both the 
asserting word and all the words telling what is asserted 
of the subject. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

1st type Subject Copula Predicate Attribute 

2d type Subject Copula-Attribute 

3d type Subject Copula- Attribute Object Complement 

4th type Subject Copula- Attribute < ~ J . . ] ~ J , 

Jr J r (Complement (Complement. 

THE PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE IS THAT PART OF IT WHICH 
BOTH ASSERTS AND TELLS WHAT IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT. 

EXERCISE. 

46. Separate the following sentences into subject and 
predicate. Tell the elements of the predicate. Then name 
the type of sentence to which it belongs. 

1. The storm swept the valleys clean. 

2. Mountains of childish grief are molehills of age. 

3. The rippling brook turns the mill-wheel. 

4. The worst wheel of the cart makes the most noise. 

5. Babbling streams are shallow. 

6. Small clouds are sailing. 

7. The rain is over and gone. 

8. The very hairs of your head are numbered. 

9. A close mouth catches no flies. 

10. Righteousness and peace have kissed each other. 

11. America was a land of wonder. 

12. The rugged wilderness offered a stern and hard-won inde- 

pendence. 

13. The wilderness of waves met the wilderness of woods. 

14. They named the river the River of May. 

15. The frightened Indians had fled. 






REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS 31 

16. The pressing question was how they were to subsist. 

17. The soldier sheathed his sword. 

18. The most prominent feature of their worship was sun-worship. 

19. The snow shall be their winding-sheet. 

20. Every turf beneath their feet 

Shall be a soldier's sepulchre. 

KEVIEW OF DEFINITIONS. 

47. A sentence is the expression of a complete thought 
in words. 

The subject of a sentence names that of which something 
is asserted. 

The predicate attribute names that which is asserted of 
the subject. 

The copula is the -word or group of words that asserts 
the relation between the subject and the predicate attri- 
bute. 

A copula-attribute is a word or group of words that has 
the uses of both copula and predicate attribute. 

The predicate of a sentence is that part of it which both 
asserts and tells what is asserted of the subject. 

A complement is an element of a sentence that completes 
the assertion made by an incomplete verb. 

An attribute complement is an element of a sentence that 
completes the assertion made by an incomplete verb, and 
names an attribute of the subject. 

An object complement is an element of a sentence that 
completes the assertion made by an incomplete verb, and 
names the receiver of the action. 

An objective complement is an element of a sentence that 
names an attribute of the object complement, resulting from 
the action asserted by the verb. 

A noun is a word that names a subject of thought. 

A common noun is a word that names any one of a class. 

A proper noun is a "word that names an individual to dis- 
tinguish it from others of the class to which it belongs. 

A pronoun is a word that represents a subject of thought, 
but does not name it. 

A verb is a word that asserts. 

A verb-phrase is a group of words that asserts. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A copulative verb or verb-phrase is one "whose principal 
use in the sentence is that of a copula. 

An attributive verb or verb-phrase is one that contains in 
itself a predicate attribute. 

A complete verb or verb-phrase is one that requires no 
complement to complete its meaning. 

An incomplete verb or verb-phrase is one that requires a 
complement to complete its meaning. 

A transitive verb or verb-phrase is one that asserts an 
action received by an object "which is named by the subject 
or the object complement. 

An intransitive verb or verb-phrase is one that does not 
assert an action received by an object. 

A verb is in the active voice when its subject names the 
doer of the action asserted. 

A verb is in the passive voice when its subject names the 
receiver of the action asserted. 

MODIFIERS. 

48. You have learned to separate sentences into their 
elements, and to classify them according to their type. 
The next step is to separate these elements into parts, to 
find how they are made. 

(a) The lashing billows made a long report. 

(b) The setting sun 
Slowly descended. 

If sentence (a) be stripped to its bare necessary elements, it will 
read billows made report. Write these three words, and above 
each write the name of the element. What other words are used in 
the full sentence to modify, or change, the meaning of these bare 
elements? Which word tells the kind of billows? The makes 
lashing billows more definite. What two words modify the mean- 
ing of the object complement, report ? Read the two bare elements 
of sentence (b). Tell what words modify, or change, the meaning 
of each. Slowly tells how the sun descended. It modifies the 
attributive idea in the verb. 

A word that modifies the meaning of another word in 
a sentence is called a modifier. 



MODIFIERS 33 

In (a), the complete subject of the sentence is not 
named until all the words, "The lashing billows," are 
used. The complete subject of (b) is " The 
setting sun." All the words that together name and Bare 
that of which something is asserted are called 
the complete subject. The one word which, stripped of 
its modifiers, forms the basis of the complete subject is 
called the bare subject. Give the complete subjects of 
the sentences in this lesson. 

All the words in the assertion about the subject — the 
words that assert and those that tell what is 
asserted — are called the complete predicate, and Bare 
The elements of the complete predicate, stripped 
of modifiers, are included in what is called the bare 
predicate. 

EXERCISE. 

49. In the following sentences, point out the modifiers, 
and tell what element of the sentence is modified by each. 

1. Small courtesies sweeten life. 

2. Small cheer and great welcome make a very merry feast. 

3. A thin meadow is soon mowed. 

4. The ripest fruit falls first. 

5. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

6. I planted an old, dry, white, fairy seed. 

7. Its blossoms were magic golden flowers. 

8. The ripened fruit was a yellow jack-o'-lantern. 

9. One plant bore a very large Thanksgiving pie. 

EXERCISE. 

50. Find or make sentences with bare predicates of the 
following form : (1) an unmodified copula and predicate 
attribute ; (2) an unmodified copula-attribute ; (3) an 
unmodified copula-attribute and object complement ; and 
(4) an unmodified copula-attribute, object complement, 
and objective complement. 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Frame definitions of complete subject, bare subject, 
complete predicate, and bare predicate. Give examples 
of each. 

EXEKCISE. 

51. Analyze the following sentences according to this 
model, and those previously given. 

Model. " The setting sun slowly descended " is a sentence. 

The complete subject is "The setting sun." 

The complete predicate is " slowly descended." 

The bare subject is " sun," modified by the words " The " and 
"setting." 

The bare predicate is "descended," a copula-attribute. The sen- 
tence is, therefore, of the second type. 

The copula-attribute is modified by the word " slowly." 

1. Fame is very cheap. 

2. The gentle dew refreshes the parched grass. 

3. Great men are sincere. 

4. God's glory is his goodness. 

5. A constant friend is rare. 

6. Evil news rides post. 

7. An undevout astronomer is mad. 

8. A free country life makes strong, true men. 

9. A lazy man is a bad man. 

10. Guilt has quick ears. 

11. Pride is seldom delicate. 

12. The lonely pine waves its sombre boughs. 

13. Friendship is a sheltering tree. 

14. A clear conscience is a soft pillow. 

15. A sunny spirit quickly dispels angry frowns. 

ADJECTIVES. 

52. Modifiers are divided into groups, or classes, ac- 
cording to tlieir use. All the modifiers indicated by special 
type in the following sentences belong to the same class. 

(a) Grant, determined and persevering, had carried on a vigor- 

ous, daring, and offensive campaign. 

(b) These victories caused much suffering and the loss of many 

lives. 



ADJECTIVES 35 

(c) He was brave and strong. 

(d) The still, -warm, misty, dreamy Indian summer cannot be 

truly painted. 

(e) Unjust gains give short-lived pleasures. 

(f) The Father of Waters is calm and untroubled. 

(g) It is deep and broad. 

What three words in (a) describe the campaign ? What two 
words describe Grant ? What words in (d) describe summer ? All 
these words, then, are modifiers of nouns. They are called 
adjectives. 

What words in (f) are attribute complements ? What do they 
describe ? They are adjectives, because they describe a noun. 

What words are attribute complements in (c) ? in (g) ? Whom 
do brave and strong describe ? What do deep and broad de- 
scribe ? These -words are used to describe objects repre- 
sented by pronouns. They are also adjectives. 

The adjectives determined, persevering, vigorous, daring, 
offensive, brave, strong, deep, and broad, and the other modi- 
fiers named, all describe some object. They express qualities. 

In (b), there are modifiers of nouns which do not describe. They 
do, however, affect the meaning of nouns. If we should say, " Vic- 
tories caused suffering and loss of lives," the meaning of the nouns 
would be indefinite with respect to amount and number. The 
words much and many add to the meaning of the nouns, and make 
it more definite. And the word these limits the application of 
victories to definite successes. In the same way The is a modifier 
of Father of Waters, definitely pointing it out. These words, 
much, many, these, and the, are modifiers. Since they modify the 
meaning of nouns, they are adjectives. 

AN ADJECTIVE IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF 
A NOUN OR PRONOUN. 

In the sentences at the beginning of this lesson, point 
out the adjectives that stand before the words they mod- 
ify ; those that follow the noun or pronoun modified ; those 
that are used as attribute complements, coming after the 
copula. Find in your readers sentences containing adjec- 
tives. Where in the sentence are adjectives most commonly 
placed ? 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

An adjective is very often used as an attribute comple- 
ment. When it is so used, it is by many called a predi- 
cate adjective. 

EXERCISE. 

53. In the following paragraph, select the nouns, pro- 
nouns, and adjectives. Tell the word which each pronoun 
represents, and what word each adjective modifies. 

(The word " what " is a pronoun.) 

In a remote village among some wild hills in the province of Lor- 
raine, there lived a countryman whose name was Jacques d'Arc. He 
had a daughter, Joan of Arc, who was at this time in her twentieth 
year. She had been a solitary girl from her childhood ; she had often 
tended sheep and cattle for whole days where no human figure was 
seen or human voice heard ; and she had often knelt, for hours to- 
gether, in the gloomy, empty, little village chapel, looking up at the 
altar, and at the dim lamp burning before it, until she fancied that 
she saw shadowy figures standing there, and even that she heard 
them speak to her. The people in that part of France were very 
ignorant and superstitious, and they had many ghostly tales to tell 
about what they had dreamed, and what they saw among the lonely 
hills when the clouds and mists were resting on them. So they easily 
believed that Joan saw strange sights, and they whispered among 
themselves that angels and spirits talked to her. 

Dickens, from A Child's History of England. 

ADVERBS. 

54. Not all modifiers are adjectives. Most of those 
in the following sentences may be grouped in a different 
class because of their different use. 

(a) A brave man never dies. 

(b) Books are our most steadfast friends. 

(c) Comfort is tedious when it lasts too long. 

(d) Look upward, not downward. 

(e) No truly great man ever thought himself great. 

(f ) Nothing is more powerful than silence. 

(g) In solitude we are least alone, 
(h) The days pass very rapidly. 



ADVERBS 37 

In (a), what word modifies the meaning of the verb dies ? It adds 
an idea of time. In (d), what words add to the meaning of the verb 
look by indicating direction ? A "word that modifies the mean- 
ing of a verb is called an adverb. 1 

What word in (b) modifies the adjective steadfast ? the adjective 
great in (e) ? the adjective powerful in (f) ? the adjective alone 
in (g) ? These words are also called adverbs. 

What adverb in (c) modifies the verb lasts ? This adverb is 
itself modified by a word that intensifies its meaning. What is that 
word ? In the last sentence, tell why rapidly is an adverb. What 
word adds to the meaning of the adverb rapidly ? These words, 
too and very, modifiers of adverbs, are also called adverbs. 
Adverbs may modify adjectives and other adverbs as well 
as verbs. 

Adjectives and adverbs are themselves modifiers ; so a 
word that modifies a modifier is an adverb. The defini- 
tion of an adverb is : 

AN ADVERB IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF A 
VERB OR A MODIFIER. 

EXERCISE. 

55. In the following sentences, select the adverbs, tell- 
ing what each modifies, and whether the word modified 
is a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Analyze the first 
seven sentences. 

1. Formerly men printed their books by hand. 

2. The ignorant foreigner finds too much freedom here. 

3. A wise man will always be a Christian. 

4. Youth comes but once in a lifetime. 

5. The majestic river floated on. 

6. Truth never hurts the teller. 

7. The tongue is ever turning to the aching tooth. 

8. Swing low, sweet chariot ! 

9. I never was on the dull, tame shore, 

But I loved the great sea more and more, 
And backward flew to its billowy breast. 

1 See dictionary for meaning of the word adverb. Does the word seem 
suitable ? 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

10. The kingbird is most frequently seen on a fence or a dead 
twig of a tree, where leaves do not come in the way of his 
sight. He stands very upright, like a hawk or an owl, and, 
though as quiet as if he had nothing to do, he is keenly 
awake to every movement about him, and every few minutes 
he dashes into the air, seizes a passing insect, and returns to 
the spot from which he started. While his mate is sitting, he 
usually establishes himself near the nesting tree, and spends 
hour after hour in this apparently monotonous way, varying 
it only to relieve her by watching the nest, and thus giving 
her an opportunity to seek food for herself. 

Olive Thorne Miller. 

PHRASES. 
56. Study the following groups of words. 

(a) with fading music 

(b) in dull, cold marble 

(c) will have been studying 

(d) to follow 

Are the words of each group related in meaning ? Does a single 
one of the expressions contain a subject and a predicate ? Such a 
group of words is called a phrase. 

The difference between a sentence and a phrase is this : 
a sentence always has a subject and a predicate, and makes 
an assertion; a phrase never has a subject and a predicate, 
and does not make an assertion. 

Frame sentences containing each of the phrases above. In your 
sentences, what does the phrase (a) modify ? Is it, then, used like 
an adjective or an adverb ? What does (b) modify ? Is it used 
like an adjective or an adverb ? In your sentence, is (d) used as 
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb ? We find, then, that phrases 
are used as nouns, or verbs, or adjectives, or adverbs. 

In the following expressions, separate the phrases from 
the sentences. 

(e) of red apples (h) for eating 

(f ) apples aye red (i) they are to be eaten 

(g) to be eaten (j) on the day appointed 



USES OF PHRASES 39 

(k) along the homeward way 

(1) the school-children loitered along the homeward way 

A PHRASE IS A GROUP OF RELATED WORDS WITHOUT SUBJECT 
AND PREDICATE, AND HAVING THE USE OF A SINGLE WORD. 

USES OF PHRASES. 

57. You have learned that word modifiers are grouped 
in different classes according to their use. They may be 
adjectives or adverbs. Phrase modifiers are classified in 
the same way. 

(a) With fine bread of wheat was the leper fed. 

(b) With fine wheaten bread was the leper fed. 

(c) Persons that live in glass houses should move with care. 

(d) Persons that live in houses of glass should move carefully. 

(e) Cinderella's sisters treated her shabbily. 

(f ) They treated her in a shabby manner. 

(g) That plant or animal is healthy that is in a healthy con- 
dition. 

(h) The coloring of tulips is extremely brilliant. 
(i) The coloring is brilliant in the highest degree. 

What phrase in (a) means just the same as wheaten in (b) ? 
What phrase in (g) means the same as an adjective in (g) ? Have 
both adjective and phrase the same use ? Since both these phrases 
are used as adjectives, they are called adjective phrases. 
There are other adjective phrases in these sentences. Find them. 
Tell what noun or pronoun each modifies. 

In (d), what adverb modifies move ? What phrase in (c) has 
the same meaning and use ? What adverb in (e) modifies the verb 
treated ? What phrase in (f) has the same meaning and use ? 
Since these phrases modify verbs, they are called adverbial 
phrases. 

In (h), what adverb modifies the adjective brilliant ? What 
phrase in (i) has the same meaning and use ? Since this phrase 
is used to modify a modifier, it is called an adverbial phrase. 

A phrase used to modify a noun or a pronoun is an adjec- 
tive phrase. 

A phrase used to modify a verb or a modifier is an adver- 
bial phrase. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXEKCISE. 

58. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " Idleness is the source of much evil " is a sentence, be- 
cause. . . . 

The complete subject is " Idleness." 

The complete predicate is " is the source of much evil." 

The bare subject is " Idleness " ; it is unmodified. 

The bare predicate is " is source," composed of the copula " is " 
and the attribute complement " source." The sentence, therefore, 
is of the first type. 

The attribute complement " source " is modified by the adjective 
" the " and the adjective phrase " of much evil." 

Model for Written Analysis. 



Complete Subject 




Idleness 


Complete Predicate 




is the source of much evil. 


Bare Subject 




Idleness 


Bare Predicate 




is source 


Copula 




is 


Attribute Complement 




source 


Modifiers of Attribute 


Complement 


the of much evil 



1. Men of great wealth do much good. 

2. Lafayette came at a fortunate time. 

3. Happiness is the natural flower of duty. 

4. A treaty is the promise of a nation. 

5. A good intention clothes itself with sudden power. 

6. Youth is full of pleasance. 

7. Age is full of care. 

8. The man with a violin is a bore to the man with a flute. 

9. The frost has bitten the heel of the going year. 

10. Opportunities never nibble twice at the same hook. 

11. The fields look rough with hoary dew. 

12. Upon the grass the frost lies white. 

13. The world is still deceived by ornament. 

14. A little nonsense, now and then, 
Is relished by the wisest men. 

15. The wild November comes at last 

Beneath a veil of rain. 



PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE 41 

16. The searching eye of heaven is hid 
Behind the globe. 

17. The vain young Night 
Trembles o'er her own beauty in the sea. 

18. Upon a pasture stone, 
Against the fading west, 
A small bird sings alone. 

PHRASES IN THE PREDICATE. 

59. Sometimes a phrase in the predicate is a predicate 
attribute ; sometimes it is an adverbial modifier. To tell 
in which way it is used, one needs to think carefully of 
the meaning of the sentence* 

(a) The nest is high. 

(b) The nest is in the tree. 

(c) The birds are playing in the tree. 

(d) The teacher is present. 

(e) She is in the room. 

(f) We march in the room. 

(g) God is omnipresent, 
(h) God is in His -world, 
(i) He lives in His -world. 

(j) The mountains seem distant. 

(k) They are far in the distance. 

(1) I see their snowy peaks in the distance. 

(m) A traitor dies unwept, unhonored, and unsung. 

(n) A traitor is without honor in his death. 

(o) He has lived without honor. 

(p) He is buried without tears. 

(q) The President is friendly to all. 

(r) The President is of a friendly spirit. 

(s) Beethoven's early home was in Germany. 

(t) He moved to Austria. 

In (a), what is the predicate attribute ? This word names an 
attribute of place, or position. In (b), what phrase shows the posi- 
tion of the nest ? The phrase is, then, just as truly an attribute of 
position. So the phrase is the predicate attribute of the sentence. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The same phrase has a different use in (c). If the phrase were 
omitted in (b), would any assertion be made about the nest ? 
What necessary element would be omitted? If the phrase were 
omitted in (c), would an assertion be made ? The predicate attri- 
bute is expressed in the copula-attribute are playing. What phrase 
tells where they were playing? Since it modifies a verb, it is an 
adverbial phrase. 

What is the predicate attribute in (d) ? What phrase has the 
same use in (e) ? Show that the same words form an adverbial 
phrase in (f). Show that the adjective omnipresent is a neces- 
sary element of the sentence (g). What is the name of the ele- 
ment ? Show that the predicate attribute of (i) is contained in the 
verb. How, then, is the phrase in His world used in (i) ? 

Point out all the single words used as predicate attributes in these 
sentences. Point out all the phrases having the same meaning and 
use, and show that each is the predicate attribute of a sentence. 

Point out all the adverbial phrases, and tell what verb each modi- 
fies. 

This rule may generally be followed : When the verb 
is attributive, a phrase in the predicate is a modifier ; 
when the verb is copulative, a phrase in the predicate is 
the predicate attribute. As there are but few copulative 
verbs, a close watch upon sentences containing any of them 
will guard against mistakes. 

EXERCISE. 

60. Write five sentences containing copulative verbs 
completed by phrases. Write five sentences containing 
attributive verbs modified by phrases. 

EXERCISE. 

61. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
models already used. 

1. Washington is the capital of the United States. 

2. Washington is in the District of Columbia. 

3. Washington is situated on the Potomac. 

4. Cotton is grown in the South. 

5. The negroes are in the South. 



PREPOSITIONS 43 

6. Much of our fruit comes from California. 

7. Pasadena is in the fruit district of California. 

8. Our biggest timber comes from Washington and Oregon. 

9. Vast forests of fir are in Washington. 

10. Alaska is a mining-camp. 

11. Alaska contains many mining-camps. 

12. In the mining-camps of Alaska are many men from the United 

States. 

13. They live in the camps. 

14. To-day is here. 

15. To-morrow will never be here. 

16. Here is darkness. 

17. Beyond the mountain is light. 

18. Here darkness overtook us. 

19. In the morning we shall come into the light. 

20. The criticism was given for our good. 

21. Criticism is for our good. 

22. Truth is within ourselves. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

62. The purpose of this lesson is to separate phrases 
into their elements, and to learn the use of a class of 
words not yet studied. 

(a) My naked feet found dewy pathways through the wheat. 

(b) The dust was dimpled by the rain. 

(c) The flowers were refreshed by it. 

(d) The bloom was on the clover. 

(e) The blue was in the sky. 

(f) Hope is strong in the morning. 

(g) The world is a picture-book to children. 

Write in a column the phrases used in these sentences. Under- 
line the nouns and pronouns in these phrases. Does each phrase 
have either a noun or a pronoun for its principal word ? After each 
phrase write the little word with which it begins. Each of these 
little words connects the noun or the pronoun in the phrase with the 
word the phrase modifies. Each also shows the relation of the noun 
or pronoun to the word which the phrase modifies. This is clearly 
seen by changing these little words in a sentence. Read the follow- 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ing sentences in the different ways indicated, and observe the differ- 
ence in meaning. 

(to) 

(from) 
The knight sprang (upon) his horse. 

(before) 

(under) 
(over) 
The mouse ran (across) my feet. 

(by) 

The words that connect, and at the same time show a 
relation between words, are called prepositions. 

A PREPOSITION IS A WORD OR A GROUP OF WORDS THAT CON- 
NECTS THE PRINCIPAL WORD OF A PHRASE TO THE WORD THE 
PHRASE MODIFIES, AND SHOWS THE RELATION BETWEEN THE 
TWO IDEAS CONNECTED. 

In (a), "through the wheat" shows the place of the 
" pathways." The word " wheat " does not show this; it 
is "through." So "on" in "on the clover" shows a 
place relation. In (e), " in " shows a time relation. 

The relations most often shown by prepositions are 
Relations those of time and place. In, on, at, near, to, up, 
Preposi^ 7 down, over, under, through, and a number of 
tions " other prepositions usually show a place relation. 

After, before, during, at, in, until, and many others 
usually show a time relation. 

Besides these, there are others which show a variety of 
relations ; such as, by, of, for, with, against, through, 
from, since. 

Sometimes two or more words are combined to show 
relation, making a phrase-preposition. 

Example, from under the ruins ; in accordance with the facts ; 
as to the story; because of the cold. 

The principal word of a prepositional phrase is sometimes 
called the object of the preposition. 



PREPOSITIONS 45 

EXERCISE. 

63. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " A lion among ladies is a most dreadful thing " is a 
sentence, because . . . 

The complete subject is " A lion among ladies." 

The complete predicate is " is a most dreadful thing." 

The bare subject is "lion," modified by the adjective "A," and 
the adjective phrase, " among ladies." 

The bare predicate is " is thing," composed of the copula " is " and 
the attribute complement " thing." The sentence, therefore, is of 
the first type. 

The attribute complement is modified by the adjectives " a" and 
" dreadful." " Dreadful " is modified by the adverb " most." 

Model for Written Analysis. 

Complete Subject A lion among ladies 

Complete Predicate is a most dreadful thing 

Bare Subject lion 

Modifiers of Subject A among ladies 

Bare Predicate is thing 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement thing 

Modifiers of Attribute Complement a dreadful 

Modifiers of Modifiers most 

1. Victory is born of endurance. 

2. Excess of wealth is a cause of covetousness. 

3. All roads lead to Rome. 

4. Life without industry is guilt. 

5. I '11 speak in a monstrous little voice. 

6. Truth is truth 
To the end of reckoning. 

7. Light gains make heavy purses. 

8. This hitteth the nail on the head. 

9. The finest edge is made with a blunt whetstone. 

10. The world knows nothing of its greatest men. 

11. One on God's side is a majority. 

12. Over my head his arms he flung 

Against the world. 

13. To every man upon this earth 
Death cometh soon or late. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXEBCISE. 

64. In the following sentences, select the prepositional 
phrases, and tell between what words each preposition 
shows the relation. Analyze the sentences. 

1. All vegetables have been derived from wild plants. 

2. Most of our dairy products are consumed at home. 

3. A large part of the world's commerce is carried in British 

vessels. 

4. The naked peaks stood out against the sky. 

5. At the close of that dreadful winter barely sixty of the five 

hundred were left alive. 

6. A nod from a lord is a breakfast for a fool. 

7. We are all children in the Kindergarten of God. 

8. The poplar drops beside the way 
Its tasselled plumes of silver-gray. 

9. And o'er the hills, and far away, 
Beyond their utmost purple rim, 
Beyond the night, across the day, 
Thro* all the world she followed him. 

10. Through the naked timber, 

Column-like and old, 
Gleam the sunsets of November, 
From their skies of gold. 

11. The bumblebee tipped the lily-vases along the roadside. 

12. The honeysuckle spills its perfume on the breeze. 

13. Between the pasture bars the wondering cattle stared wist- 

fully. 

14. The ripples of the river lipped the moss along the brink. 

15. Out of the shadows of night 
The world rolls into light. 

16. By their fruits ye shall know them. 

USES OF PHRASES. 

65. (a) The holy spirit of the spring 

Is working silently. 

(b) The southern slopes are fringed with tender green. 

(c) Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

(d) The bird is on her nest. 



USES OF PHRASES 47 

(e) From her we may learn patience. 

(f) From her we may learn to be patient. 

(g) To be patient is to be strong, 
(h) Loitering makes a person tardy. 

(i) Loitering makes a person behind time. 

Point out the adjective phrase in (a) ; the adverbial phrases in (b) 
and (c); the phrase used as an attribute complement in (d). So far 
in the study of phrases, they have been attribute complements or 
modifiers. There are still other uses. 

In (e), what is the object complement of learn ? What phrase 
in (f ) has exactly the same use ? A phrase, then, may be used as 
an object complement. 

What is the subject of (g) ? This shows another use of the 
phrase. 

Show that the word tardy is the objective complement in (h) . 
What phrase has exactly the same use in (i) ? So a phrase may 
be used as an objective complement. 

A phrase may be used as : 

1. an adjective modifier ; 

2. an adverbial modifier ; 

3. an attribute complement; 

4. a subject; 

5. an object complement; 

6. an objective complement. 

EXERCISE. 

66. In the following sentences, tell how each phrase is 
used. You will need to be very careful in the analysis. 

1. Over the fence is out. 

2. He is trying hard to understand grammar. 

3. My book fell under the table. 

4. My book is on the table. 

5. He began the study of Greek. 

6. He began to study Greek. 

7. Too little exercise kept him in bad condition. 

8. A fool at forty is a fool indeed. 

9. He learned to keep a few true men for his friends. 
10. Waters on a starry night are beautiful and fair. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 

67. There are many ways of expressing a thought. In 
this lesson, each pair of sentences expresses the same 
thought ; but the form of the expression varies. Find 
just what is the difference in form. 

(a) Lincoln gave the slaves their liberty. 

(b) Lincoln gave liberty to the slaves. 

(c) Nokomis taught the little Hiawatha many things. 

(d) Nokomis taught many things to the little Hiawatha. 

(e) She showed him the broad white road in heaven. 

(f) She showed the broad white road in heaven to him. 

(g) The snow makes a beautiful white blanket for the plants, 
(h) The snow makes the plants a beautiful white blanket. 

(i) In the poem, " The Herons of Elmwood," Longfellow sent 

Lowell a message, 
(j) In this poem, he sent a message to Lowell. 

In (a) and (b), what word names the receiver of the action 
gave ? In other words, what was given ? This word is the di- 
rect object complement. In both sentences, what word tells who 
received liberty, or to whom liberty was given ? In (g) and (h), 
what completes the meaning of the transitive verb makes ? Then 
it is the direct object complement. What receives the blanket, or 
for what was it made ? A noun or pronoun that tells to -whom 
or for whom an action is done is called an indirect object. 
This name is given because the noun or pronoun is affected 
by the verb only indirectly through the direct object. 

Find the indirect objects in each sentence in this lesson and tell 
whether the preposition is or is not expressed. Observe that the 
prepositions are used to show the relation of the indirect object to 
the verb. When not expressed, the preposition to or for is under- 
stood. When it is expressed, which is placed first, the indirect ob- 
ject or the direct object ? Which, when the preposition is omitted ? 

When the indirect object is joined to the verb by a 
preposition, the indirect object and the preposition form 
an adverbial phrase. When there is no connective, the 
indirect object is still an adverbial modifier. 



THE INDIRECT OBJECT 49 

If the indirect object follows the direct object, the pre- 
position is usually expressed ; if it precedes the direct ob- 
ject, the preposition is usually omitted. 

The most common verbs that may be followed by an 
indirect object are : bring, build, cut, do, forgive, get, 
give, grant, hand, leave, make, offer, pay, pledge, 
promise, read, sell, send, show, teach, tell, throw, 
wish. 

AN INDIRECT OBJECT IS A WORD USED WITH A DIRECT OBJECT 
TO NAME THE PERSON TO OR FOR WHOM SOMETHING IS DONE. 
Indirect objects may name things as well as persons. 

EXERCISE. 

68. Write ten sensible sentences with indirect objects, 
using ten of the verbs named in Section 67. 

EXERCISE. 

69. Analyze the following sentences. There is no need 
of a new model. An indirect object is a modifier of a 
verb, just the same as any other adverbial modifier. 

1. Jefferson offered Gallatin a position in his cabinet. 

2. The Indians sold the white people acres of land. 

3. Charles II granted his " trusty and well-beloved cousins " a 

vast extent of territory in the New World. 

4. The clock upbraids me with the waste of time. 

5. Experience has taught us many serious lessons. 

6. Marquette told the listening crowds the story of salvation. 

7. The way to his land of promise was rough and long. 

8. A decent provision for the poor is the true test of civilization. 

9. To relieve distress is godlike. 

10. Now only here and there a little star 

Looks forth alone. 

11. Winter giveth the fields and trees of old 
Their beards and icicles of snow. 

NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY. 

70. (a) The coat cost much. 

(b) The coat cost three dollars. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(c) The war lasted long. 

(d) The war lasted four years. 

(e) Some mountains are very high. 

(f) Some mountains are four miles high. 

(g) A kind word is worth much, 
(h) The reward is worth the effort. 
(i) Cornwallis surrendered then. 

(j) Cornwallis surrendered October nineteenth. 

(k) The snow was gone long ago. 

(1) The snow was gone days ago. 

(m) Feeling was high years before the war. 

(n) The little birds fly east and the little birds fly west. 

What adverb in (a) modifies the verb cost ? It gives a mea- 
sure of value. In (b), the same verb is modified by words denoting 
a measure of value, but the value is named. Since this expression 
modifies the meaning of the verb, it is an adverbial modifier. In 
(c), what adverb modifies the verb lasted ? It is a measure of 
time. In (d), the measure of time is named. Then the expressions 
three dollars and four years are both adverbial modifiers, though 
both dollars and years are nouns. 

What adverb in (e) modifies the adjective high? In (f), what 
words modify high by naming the measure of distance ? In (g), 
what adverb expresses the measure of value ? Why is it an adverb ? 
By what is the measure of value expressed in (h) ? Does this expres- 
sion modify the adjective "worth ? Then what kind of modifier is 
it ? In (j), there is a noun used adverbially to designate a point of 
time. What is it ? What adverb in (k) modifies the adverb ago ? 
What noun in (1) has the same adverbial use ? What noun in (n) 
is used adverbially to designate a direction ? What noun in (m) is 
used adverbially to denote a measure of time modifying the meaning 
of the adverbial phrase ? 

Name the nouns in (b), (d), (f), (h), (j), (1), (m), and (n) used as 
adverbial modifiers. Which are used to modify the meaning of 
verbs ? of adjectives ? of adverbs ? of a phrase ? They all express 
some kind of measure. 

The commonest adverbial uses of a noun are to desig- 
nate measure, point of time, and direction. 

Adverbs may modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or 
phrases. Nouns used as adverbs may do the same. 



NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY 51 

EXERCISE. 

71. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " One warm morn, Winter crept, aged, from the earth " 
is a sentence of the second type. 

Complete Subject Winter aged 

Complete Predicate crept One warm morn 

from the earth 
Bare Subject Winter 

Modifier of Subject aged 

Bare Predicate crept 

Modifiers of Copula- Attribute One warm morn 

from the earth 

1 A pint of water weighs a pound. 

2. My father is out of the city. 

3. My father is away. 

4. The moon is far away. 

5. The sun is 92,000,000 miles away. 

6. A hundred years make a century. 

7. Years ago the Mississippi valley was the abode of Indians. 

8. They marched half a league onward. 

9. Morning, noon, and night, her tongue was forever going. 

10. Your privileges have cost labor and sacrifice. 

11. The view from the mountain-top is worth the weary climb. 

12. The situation was not without its embarrassments. My rod 

weighed four and a half ounces. The fish weighed five or 
six pounds. The current was furious and headstrong. I 
had only thirty yards of line and no landing-net. 

13. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 

14. No morning sun lasts a whole day. 

NOUNS USED ADJECTIYELY: APPOSITIVES AND 
POSSESSIVES. 

72. You have studied the uses of nouns as subject, 
attribute complement, object complement, objective com- 
plement, and adverbial modifiers. Give examples of each 
in sentences. Two other uses of nouns are shown in the 
following sentences. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(a) Nero, a Roman emperor, murdered Christians for his plea- 

sure. 

(b) I, John, saw these things. 

(c) William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh, a Shawnee 

chief. 

(d) Slavery received its hardest blow from William Lloyd Garri- 

son, a poor printer. 

(e) The chief's eye flashed. 

(f ) A man's reach should exceed his grasp. 

(g) A serpent's bite is poisonous. 

(h) Some men seem to have a lion's strength, 
(i) One winter's evening a man was urging a tired horse along 
a lonely road. 

What word in (a) modifies Nero by telling who he was ? It is 
an adjective modifier. Why ? What word in (b) modifies the pro- 
noun I by identifying or naming ? It is also an adjective modifier. 
Why ? What noun in (c) tells in what class to place Tecumseh ? 
Since it adds to the meaning of a noun by expressing the attribute 
of classification, it is an adjective modifier. Show that the noun 
printer in (d) has the same use. In all four sentences you have 
pointed out nouns used as adjective modifiers. There is no word to 
connect these nouns with the words they modify. A noun, then, 
may modify another noun directly, both of them naming 
the same subject of thought. A noun having this adjective 
use is called an appositive. 

AN APPOSITIVE IS A NOUN USED ADJECTIVELY TO ADD TO 
THE MEANING OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN BY NAMING THE SAME 
SUBJECT OF THOUGHT. 

Observe the mark used to separate an appositive from 
the rest of the sentence. Frame a rule for this use of the 
comma. 

What noun in (e) names the possessor or owner of eye ? What 
noun in (f) modifies the meaning of the noun reach denoting pos- 
session ? In the same sentence, a pronoun is used to denote posses- 
sion. What noun does this pronoun limit in meaning ? These 
•words denoting possession are possessive modifiers. They 
are nouns and pronouns used adjectively to modify other 
nouns and pronouns. In writing such noun modifiers, what mark 
is used as the sign of the possessive ? 



NOUNS USED ADJECTIYELY 53 

Not all nouns with the sign of the possessive, the apos- 
trophe, denote possession. In (c), the serpent cannot be 
said to own or possess the bite. " Serpent's " is a modi- 
fier denoting the agent of an action. In (d), " lion's " 
does not mean that the man possesses the actual strength 
belonging to the lion. It is a modifier used to describe 
"strength." And in (e), "winter's" does not denote 
possession ; it is descriptive. Yet because most words 
with the sign of the possessive actually do denote posses- 
sion, we term them all possessives. 

Nouns, then, have two adjective uses ; as appositives, 
and as possessives. 

A noun used as an appositive or a possessive may be 
modified by adjectives, the same as other nouns. Find 
examples. 

EXERCISE. 

73. Write five sentences each containing an appositive. 
In three of the sentences, use adjectives to modify the 
meaning of the appositives. 

Write five sentences each containing a possessive modi- 
fier ; and in three of these sentences use adjectives to 
modify the meaning of the possessive. 

EXERCISE. 

74. Re-write the following sentences, changing each 
possessive modifier to an adjective phrase beginning with 
the preposition of. For example, " The weapon of a 
worthless coward has no point." 

(a) A worthless coward's weapon has no point. 

(b) A boy's will is the wind's will. 

(c) Every subject's duty is the king's. 

(d) Every subject's soul is his own. 

(e) The rich man's son inherits cares. 

(f ) What doth the poor man's son inherit ? 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(g) One on God's side is a majority. 

(h) The daisy's cheek is tipped with a blush. 

Have you changed the meaning in any case ? Tell of 
each sentence whether you like it better with the posses- 
sive or with the phrase. 

EXERCISE. 

75. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " William Henry Harrison defeated Tecmuseh, a Shawnee 
chief," is a sentence. 

The complete subject is " William Henry Harrison." 

The complete predicate is " defeated Tecumseh, a Shawnee 
chief." 

The bare subject is " William Henry Harrison," unmodified. 

The bare predicate is " defeated Tecumseh," composed of the 
copula-attribute "defeated" and the object complement " Tecum- 
seh." The sentence is, therefore, of the third type. " Tecumseh " 
is modified by the appositive " chief." " Chief " is modified by the 
adjectives " a " and " Shawnee." 

1. Hildebrand, the son of a poor carpenter, became pope in the 

eleventh century. 

2. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian sailor, made the first chart of 

the coast of America. 

3. The Gauls were subdued by Caesar, dictator of Rome. 

4. No man knows his own voice. 

5. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck the flower, safety. 

6. The army moved forward after a month's delay. 

7. Gladness on wings, the bobolink, is here. 

8. My oriole, my glance of summer fire, is come at last. 

9. Stanch friends are we, 
One little sandpiper and I. 

10. He wandered away and away 
With Nature, the dear old Nurse. 

11. Noontide wakes the buttercups, 
The little children's dower. 

12. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, 
A ragged beggar sunning. 

13. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 



NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY 55 

EXERCISE. 

76. In the following sentences, the same word occurs 
a number of times ; but its use in the several sentences is 
not the same. Study the meaning of each sentence, and 
be sure to give the words their proper place in the analy- 
sis. Analyze the sentences according to models already 
given. Classify the words as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
verbs, adverbs, and prepositions. Always give the reason 
for your classification. 

1. The dog ran fast. 

2. The fast horses were tied fast to the fence. 

3. The Jews observed the fast. 

4. Many persons fast during Lent. 

5. He came in. 

6. We sat in the reading-room of the inn. 

7. He looked at himself in the mirror. 

8. He had the look of a gentleman. 

9. I fell down. I stayed down. 

10. I rolled down the hill. 

11. The robin picked down from her breast. 

12. A down pillow is soft. 

13. The only real possession of man is his character. 

14. I whispered only once. 

15. I only whispered once. 

16. Only he went. 

17. The door is wide open. 

18. The door is open wide. 

19. The door stood wide open. 

20. The open door is the American policy in China. 

21. They open the gate. 

22. I hear the low murmur of the breeze. 

23. I feel the breeze. 

24. I feel cool. 

25. The breeze is murmuring soft and low. 

26. The house is painted red. 

27. They painted the house red. 

28. The poker is red hot. 

29. The* hot poker is red. 

30. Bed is my favorite color. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 

77. Which usually comes first in a sentence, — the subject or the 
predicate ? Prove your answer by your reading lesson. Do com- 
plements usually follow or precede the verbs ? Give examples. Do 
the word modifiers of a noun generally precede or follow the word 
modified ? Is this true of the phrase modifiers ? Find examples to 
show that your answers are correct. Write the answers to the 
questions in this paragraph in complete sentences. 

Show in what respect each of the following sentences varies from 
the usual order. Observe the difference in the impression left in 
your mind. Re-write each sentence, changing the order to the usual 
form. 

(a) In union is strength. 

(b) Ideals we do not make. We discover them. 

(c) Slowly and quietly the great gray clouds creep up over the 

night sky. 

(d) Silent and soft and slow 

Descends the snow. 

(e) All around the happy village 
Stood the maize fields green and shining. 

Is it not true in each case that the words placed first 
attract attention and so are emphatic ? 

If all sentences should be arranged in the same order, 
composition would become monotonous. To introduce 
variety into composition, and to render a special word 
emphatic, writers change from the usual order. A verb, 
adjective, adverb, complement, or modifier placed first in a 
sentence receives especial emphasis. Any part of a sen- 
tence may be put out of its natural order to give the com- 
position variety, and especially to give emphasis to the 
transposed part. 

EXERCISE. 

78. Analyze the five sentences above and the sentences 
below. There is no new element in them. Be very care- 
ful to know what each sentence means before you begin 
with the analysis. 



ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE 57 

1. From the dull ground, the violet gathers up her tender blue. 

2. A prisoner Robert remained for twenty-eight years. 

3. A mighty man is he, 
With large and sinewy hands. 

4. A rare old plant is the ivy green. 

5. With his hard, rough hand, 

He wipes a tear out of his eyes. 

6. A primrose by the river's brim 
A yellow primrose was to him. 

7. Three years she grew in sun and shower. 

8. Sweet is the breath of morn. 

9. In a small chamber, friendless and unseen, 
Toiled o'er his types one poor unlearned young man. 

10. Him have I offended. 

11. Shorter and shorter now the twilight clips the days. 

12. Old homesteads I love, in their clusters of trees. 

79. The following sentences show a common way of 
varying the usual order of words in a sentence. 

(a) A window-box of beautiful geraniums is here by me. 

(b) There is a bank of beautiful geraniums here by me. 

(c) No day is without its innocent hope. 

(d) There is no day without its innocent hope. 

(e) Something forever comes between us and happiness. 

(f) There comes forever something between us and happiness. 

(g) Shepherds were keeping watch by night. 

(h) There were shepherds keeping watch by night. 

(i) Men of honor and courage are still in the world. 

(j) There are still men of honor and courage in the world. 

What word is used to introduce the sentence in (b), (d), (f), (h), 
and (j), when the usual order is changed ? Though this word is 
sometimes used as an adverb of place, thoughtful study of the mean- 
ing will show that it is not so used in the sentences given. For ex- 
ample, in the first sentence, here is certainly an adverb of place ; 
and both here and there could not be used in the same sentence 
to denote the same place. In this, as in the other sentences 
given above, " there " is simply an introductory word. 

Show that the two sentences in each group have the same subjects 
and the same predicates. Tell just what changes have been made 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

in the natural order when the introductory word there is used. Give 
other examples. 

Another form of expression is shown in the sentences 
below. 

(a) To have friends at court is good. 

(b) It is good to have friends at court. 

(c) To get a joke well into a Scotch understanding requires a 

surgical operation. 

(d) It requires a surgical operation to get a joke well into a 

Scotch understanding. 

(e) To be conscious of no faults is the greatest of faults. 

(f) It is the greatest of faults to be conscious of no faults. 

(g) To catch a thief needs a thief, 
(h) It needs a thief to catch a thief. 

(i) That every man's work is born into this world with him is true, 
(j) It is true that every man's work is born into this world with 
him. 

What is the complete subject of (a) ? (c) ? (e) ? (g) ? (i) ? 

When the real subject of a sentence is a group of words denoting 
a single idea, it seldom stands at the beginning of a sentence. The 
predicate often comes before the real subject, with the pronoun " it " 
used as another subject in apposition with the real subject. For 
example, in (b), It and the phrase to have friends at court 
mean the same ; they name the same subject of thought ; they are 
in apposition. 

Can you think why the word " it " in such sentences is called 
an anticipatory subject? The group of words "which it an- 
ticipates is called the real subject. What is the real subject of 
(b)?(d)?(f)?(h)?(j)? 

EXERCISE. 

80. Analyze the following sentences. Do not try to 
separate the real subject into its parts. The predicate 
of each sentence is easy to analyze. 

Model. " It is honorable to work with the hands " is a sentence 
of the first type. 

The complete subject is "It " "to work with the hands." 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES 59 

The complete predicate is " is honorable," composed of a copula 
and an attribute complement. The sentence is, therefore, of the first 
type. 

" It " is the anticipatory subject, in apposition with the real subject, 
" to work with the hands." 

Model for Written Analysis. 
Complete Subject It to work with the hands 

Complete Predicate is honorable 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement honorable 

1. It is a grand thing to make something beautiful. 

2. There is no food for the soul but truth. 

3. It was morning on hill and stream and tree. 

4. There 's a star in the sky. 

5. It is a great thing to be beloved by one's country. 

6. There is no doubt on that score. 

7. There was little conversation. 

8. There was a little chapel cut in the very heart of the mountains. 

9. It takes a long time to bring excellence to maturity. 

CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

81. (a) Truth is eternal. 

(b) Art is long. 

(c) Time is fleeting. 

(d) Rome was not built in a day. 

(e) Are we so soon forgot ? 

(f ) How soon are we forgot ? 

(g) Who loves not power ? 
(h) What find I here ? 

(i) To what will avarice bring us ? 

(j) What manner of man is this ? 

(k) What have they named the new ship ? 

(1) Be a hero in the strife. 

(m) Act well your part. 

(n) Be charitable with others. 

(o) Be strict with thyself. 

Which of the above sentences are used to declare that something 
is, or is not, true ? Which are used to ask questions ? Which are 
used to give commands ? 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAE 

Sentences are classified according to their use, as declara- 
tive, interrogative, or imperative. 

What element of a declarative sentence usually stands first ? Is 
this usually true of interrogative sentences ? Is the subject first in 
(e) ? in (f) ? in (g) ? in (h) ? in (i) ? in (j) ? in (k) ? What may stand 
first in an interrogative sentence ? What element stands first in the 
imperative sentences ? What element is omitted in the imperative 
sentences ? 

A declarative sentence usually begins with the subject* 

In an interrogative sentence, that element stands first 
about which the question is asked. If the question is 
about the copula, the copula is first; as in (e). If it is 
about the subject, the subject stands first. The same prin- 
ciple holds true with the other elements of a sentence. 

In an imperative sentence, the verb, the word that gives 
the command, stands first. In all kinds of sentences, then, 
the important word in the sentence stands at the beginning. 

The grammatical use of the interrogative word in a sen- 
tence may be made clear by substituting the word which 
answers the question. 

Examples. Who ) 

( loves not power ? 
John) 

What) 

( have they named him ? 
James) 

Who ) 

( is he ? 
The King ) 

In the interrogative sentence, " Who is he ? " " Who " is not, as it 
might seem to be, the subject. For if we substitute the word which 
answers the question, the sentence reads, " The King is he," or, as 
we usually say, " He is the King." " King " is the attribute ; and so 
" Who " is an attribute complement in the question, " Who is he ? " 

Since we give commands to the person spoken to, there 
is no need of always saying " you." So the subject of an 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES 61 

imperative sentence is omitted. In analysis it should be 
supplied. 

A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT ASSERTS A FACT. 

AN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE USED IN ASKING QUES- 
TIONS. 

AN IMPERATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE USED IN EXPRESSING A 
COMMAND OR AN ENTREATY. 

EXERCISE. 

82. Analyze the following sentences. Before analysis 
always think the sentences re-arranged in the usual de- 
clarative order. 

Model. " What find I here ? " is a simple interrogative sentence. 
The complete subject is "I." 
The complete predicate is " find What here." 
The bare subject is "I" unmodified. 

The bare predicate is "find What," composed of the copula- 
attribute " find " and the object complement " What." 
The sentence is, therefore, of the third type. 
The copula-attribute is modified by the adverb " here." 

1. When did Cornwallis surrender ? 

2. Who is the greatest living poet ? 

3. How much have you paid for your whistle ? 

4. Does a man ever play the monkey ? 

5. Where is Paris ? 

6. Who hath not lost a friend ? 

7. Whither wilt thou flee from thyself ? 

8. Did the waves obey King Canute ? 

9. Where is the most rugged American scenery? 

10. What cat 's averse to fish ? 

11. How great a fire a little matter kindleth ! 

12. What shall I render to my God 

For all his gifts to me ? 

13. Where shall wisdom be found ? 

14. And where is the place of understanding ? 

15. Whence, then, cometh wisdom ? 

16. Who has read " The Vision of Sir Launfal " ? 

17. What is the largest city in the world ? 

18. What study do you like best ? 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ABSOLUTE WORDS — INTERJECTIONS. 

83. (a) Man, know thyself ! 

(b) How beautiful is night ! 

(c) Oh, pilot, 't is a fearful night ! 

(d) Oh, never chide the wing of time ! 

Which of the three classes of sentences is (a) ? (b) ? (c) ? (d) ? 
In what way do all four sentences differ from ordinary sentences ? 
Is the subject of an imperative sentence expressed ? Is man in 
(a) the subject ? Do we say " man know " or " man knows " ? 
What is the subject of (c) ? Of what use is pilot ? Are the 
words Man, pilot, Oh, elements of the sentences? Are they 
modifiers ? 

Under stress of great emotion any sentence may be- 
come an exclamation. This does not change 
Exclamatory x . ° 

Form of the class of sentence. It is the exclamatory 
Sentences. 

form of a declarative, interrogative, or impera- 
tive sentence. 

A sentence may contain words that grammatically have 
no connection with it ; yet these words add to the mean- 
ing of the sentence. These words are said to be inde- 
pendent or absolute. "Absolute" means "cut loose 
from ; " and these words are grammatically cut loose from 
the rest of the sentence, though in thought they have a 
close connection. Such words are used independently or 
absolutely. 

The name of the person addressed is used absolutely ; 
as, "man" in (a). 

Absolute words that are used to express strong feeling 
are called Interjections. Oh, alas, ah, pshaw, are com- 
mon examples. 

AN INTERJECTION IS A WORD USED TO EXPRESS SUDDEN 
STRONG FEELING. 

Rule. An exclamation point should follow every excla- 
mation. 



INTERJECTIONS 63 

EXERCISE. 

84. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " Oh, Pilot, 't is a fearful night ! " is a declarative sen- 
tence in the exclamatory form. " 't " is the complete subject; " is a 
fearful night " is the complete predicate 

M 9 t " is the bare subject, unmodified. 

" Is night " is the bare predicate, composed of the copula " is " and 
the predicate attribute " night." The sentence is, therefore, of the 
first type. 

" night " is modified by the adjectives " a " and " fearful." 

" Oh " and " pilot " are used absolutely in the sentence. 

1. Woodman, spare that tree ! 

2. Charge for the guns ! 

3. Lead, kindly Light ! 

4. Daughter of Egypt, veil thine eyes ! 

5. Sleep, sleep, sleep, 

In thy folded waves, O sea ! 

6. There 's a song in the air ! 
There 's a star in the sky ! 

7. My golden spurs now bring to me. 

8. Rock me to sleep, mother, — rock me to sleep ! 

9. Weep no more, my lady ! 
Weep no more to-day ! 

We will sing one song for the old Kentucky home, 
For the old Kentucky home, far away. 

10. Adieu ! adieu ! my native shore 
Fades o'er the waters blue. 

11. Oh, velvet Bee, you 're a dusty fellow ! 

12. Wind, you sing so loud a song ! 

13. By cool Siloam's shady rill 
How sweet the lily grows ! 

14. Hark ! the merry Christmas bells ! 
Hear them echo through the years ! 

15. Hurrah ! the seaward breezes 
Sweep down the bay amain ! 

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

85. (a) Man is guided by reason. 

(b) Beasts are guided by instinct. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(c) Man is guided by reason, and beasts are guided by instinct. 

(d) Man is guided by reason, and beasts by instinct. 

How many statements in (a) ? in (b) ? in (c) ? How has (c) been 
made ? Does (d) mean the same as (c) ? What words have been 
omitted in (d) ? Is the meaning perfectly clear without them ? Do 
the omitted words contain necessary elements of the sentence ? Must 
the omitted words be supplied in analysis ? In (c) and (d), what 
word is used to join the statements ? 

A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS ONE SUBJECT 
AND ONE PREDICATE. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS TWO OR 
MORE INDEPENDENT STATEMENTS, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

ELLIPSIS IS THE OMISSION OF ANY WORD OR WORDS NECES- 
SARY TO THE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF A SENTENCE. 

(These words must be supplied in the analysis of the sentence.) 

The word joining the independent statements of a com- 
pound sentence is called a conjunction. 

EXERCISE. 

86. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " Man is guided by reason, and beasts by instinct " is a 
compound declarative sentence, compound, because . . .; and decla- 
rative, because . . . 

The first independent statement is " Man is guided by reason," and 
the second is " beasts (are guided) by instinct." 

Go on with the analysis exactly as if the statements were simple 
sentences. 

The independent statements are connected by the conjunction 
"and." 

1. Virtue is bold, and goodness is never fearful. 

2. Wealthy planters settled in Virginia, but the settlers in Massa- 

chusetts were generally poor. 

3. Minnesota produces the most iron, and Pennsylvania the most 

coal. 

4. The British moved against New York, and Washington with- 

drew his forces to Long Island. 

5. A false balance is an abomination to the Lord; but a just 

weight is his delight. 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE 65 

6. Hatred stirreth up strifes; but love covereth all transgres- 

sions. 

7. A cruel story runs on wheels, and every hand oils the wheels. 

8. Terror is not always the effect of force, and an armament is 

not a victory. 

9. By slothf ulness the roof sinketh in ; 

And through idleness of the hands the house leaketh. 

10. The soft drops of rain pierce the hard marble ; many strokes 

overthrow the tallest oaks. 

11. The morn was fair, the skies were clear, 

No breath came o'er the sea. 

12. My country is the world; my countrymen are all mankind. 

COMPOUND ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE. 

87. (a) A crow and a blue jay belong to the same family of 
birds. 

(b) Wolfe defeated the French and Indians under Mont- 

calm. 

(c) Pope Leo XIII was wise and kind. 

(d) The angels come and go, the messengers of God. 

(e) Neither ancestry nor riches makes a man esteemed 

or loved. 

« 
What is the subject of (a) ? Does it name one idea ? What 

is the object in (b) ? the predicate attribute in (c) ? the copula- 
attribute in (d) ? the subject in (e) ? the objective complement 
in (e) ? 

Any of the elements of a sentence, — subject, copula, 
attribute, object, — or any modifier, may be compound. 

The word that connects the parts of any compound ele- 
ment is a conjunction. 

In the next exercise, find sentences in which several words form a 
compound element. Are there several conjunctions connecting all 
the parts of the compound elements ? If not, what takes the place 
of the conjunctions ? 

When more than two words are joined to make a com- 
pound element of a sentence, the conjunction is usually 
omitted except before the last one. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Rule. A comma is used to separate the words or phrases 
of a series, unless all the connecting words are expressed. 

EXERCISE. 

88. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " The angels come and go, the messengers of God " is a 
simple declarative sentence. There is nothing new in this analysis 
except to state that the bare predicate is the compound copula- 
attribute " come and go." The sentence is, therefore, of the second 
type. 

1. Tar, turpentine, and resin are mainly supplied by the pine for- 

ests of the South. 

2. Raw silk is reeled and sent to the market in skeins. 

3. The United States buys from Australia wool, gums, hides, and 

copper, and sells to Australia petroleum, railway cars, to- 
bacco, hardware, and leather goods. 

4. Railroads are numerous and rates are cheap in Germany. 

5. All European and many American manufacturers buy large 

quantities of raw silk in Italy. 

6. Venezuela exports quantities of rubber and coffee. 

7. Belgium makes all its own sugar, and exports much. 

8. The Dutch are a cattle-raising and trading nation. 

9. The northeast portion of France produces coal and iron. 

10. The Saskatchewan and the Mackenzie afford 4000 miles of 
navigable waterways in the far interior of Canada. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

89. (a) Brave Joan, on a white horse, defeated the English. 

(b) Brave Joan, who rode a white horse, defeated the 

English. 

(c) She who rode the white horse was Joan of Arc. 

(d) The white horse which she rode was a mark for Eng- 

lish arrows. 

(e) The white horse that she rode was a mark for English 

arrows. 

(f) Joan, in whom the army trusted, led the French to 

victory at Orleans. 

(g) Joan, whose horse was a mark for English arrows, 

was wounded. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 67 

(h) The horse on which she rode was white, 
(i) The horse which she rode on was white, 
(j) The horse that she rode on was white, 
(k) They killed the horse which Joan rode. 
(1) Joan was a brave leader that inspired courage, 
(m) The English soldiers railed at Joan, who answered them 
with silence. 

What are the modifiers of Joan in (a) ? Since they modify a 
noun, what kind of modifiers are they ? What besides brave mod- 
ifies Joan in (b) ? Since it modifies a noun, it is what kind of 
modifier ? Has this modifier a subject and a predicate ? What 
are they ? 

It has been shown in previous lessons that a noun may 
be modified by a word or a phrase. A noun may also be 
modified by a group of words containing a subject and 
a predicate. 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a predi- 
cate, and having the use of an adjective, is a 

A clause, 
clause. 

In (c), what does the clause, who rode the white horse, 
modify ? In what sentences do the clauses modify the subject ? Is 
there a sentence in which the clause is a modifier of the predicate 
attribute ? in which the clause modifies an object complement ? the 
principal word of a prepositional phrase ? 

If the word to which a pronoun refers be substituted for the pro- 
noun, the use of the pronoun will always be clear. Doing this in 
(d), you will make the clause read, " a white horse Joan rode." 
" A white horse " is the object complement ; so which, which " a 
white horse " represents, is also the object complement. What is the 
use of whom in (f) ? of whose in (g) ? of which in (h) ? of 
that in (1) ? 

In a prepositional phrase, does the preposition usually precede the 
principal word of the phrase ? Which is first in (f ) ? in (h) ? Which 
stands first in (i) ? in (j) ? Can you think of a sentence in which a 
noun used as the principal word of a phrase stands before the prepo- 
sition ? 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

90. Find sentences in your histories in which clauses 
modify nouns that are subjects, attributes, objects. Make 
up a sentence in which a clause is a modifier of a pro- 
noun. 

CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

91. In sentence (b), Section 89, what subject of thought is repre- 
sented by who ? A word that represents a subject of thought, 
but does not name it, is what ? Who also joins the clause who 
rode a white horse to the word it modifies, and so has the use of a 
conjunction. Find in Section 89 other words that combine the uses 
of a pronoun and a conjunction. 

A word that has the uses of a pronoun and a conjunc- 
tion is called a conjunctive pronoun. 

A CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN IS A PRONOUN THAT CONNECTS AN 
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE TO THE WORD IT MODIFIES. 

A sentence containing an adjective clause is complex. 

EXERCISE. 

92. Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " To-day is the day that yesterday built " is a com- 
plex, declarative sentence ; complex, because . . . ; declarative, be- 
cause . . . The complete subject is " To-day " ; the complete pre- 
dicate is " is the day that yesterday built." " To-day " is the bare 
subject unmodified. " Is day " is the bare predicate, composed of the 
copula " is " and the attribute complement " day." The sentence is, 
therefore, of the first type. The copula is unmodified ; and the 
attribute complement is modified by the adjective " the " and the 
adjective clause " that yesterday built." Of this clause " yester- 
day " is the unmodified bare subject. " Built " is the copula-attri- 
bute ; and " that " is the object complement. " That " also connects 
the clause to the word " day." 

Model for Written Analysis. 

Complete Subject To-day 

Complete Predicate is the day that yesterday built. 



CONJUNCTIVE 


PRONOUNS 


Bare Subject 


To-day 


Bare Predicate 


is day 


Copula 


is 


Attribute Complement 


day 


Modifiers of Attribute Complement 


the thai 


Subject of Clause 


yesterday 


Bare Predicate 


built that 


Copula- Attribute 


built 


Object Complement 


that 



69 



that yesterday built 



1. Most of the rubies that are found in the world come from 

Burma. 

2. George III, who was a foolish tyrant, lost America by his 

folly. 

3. T. J. Jackson, who is usually called " Stonewall Jackson," 

was a Confederate general. 

4. Franklin obtained the help that was needed. 

5. Friendship is a plant that loves the sun. 

6. He that complies against his will 

Is of the same opinion still. 

7. The flower that smiles to-day 

To-morrow dies. 

8. All that glitters is not gold. 

9. To-morrow is a lamp upon the marsh, which a traveller never 

reacheth. 

10. They love dress too much who give it their first thought, their 

best time, or much money. 

11. They always talk who never think. 

12. The tear down childhood's cheek that flows 
Is like the dewdrop on the rose. 

13. The snow had begun in the gloaming, 

And busily all the night 
Had been heaping field and highway 
With a silence deep and white. 

Every pine and fir and hemlock 

Wore ermine too dear for an earl, 
And the poorest twig on the elm-tree * 

Was ridged inch-deep with pearl. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ELLIPSIS IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

93. (a) I knew the sweet strain that the corn-reapers sung. 

(b) The song which he listened to was a song of his child- 

hood. 

(c) The pain that it had cost to reach his home was forgotten 

in joy. 

In (a), what is the use of the conjunctive pronoun ? Read the 
sentence omitting that. Is the meaning clear ? What is the omis- 
sion of words necessary to the grammatical structure of a sentence 
called ? What is the use of which in (b) ? Can it be omitted ? 
What use has that in (c) ? Can it be omitted ? 

An ellipsis of a conjunctive pronoun is very common 
when it is used as an object complement, as the principal 
word of a prepositional phrase, or as an adverbial modi- 
fier. It rarely occurs when the conjunctive pronoun is 
subject or attribute. It must be supplied in analysis. 

EXERCISE. 

94. Analyze the following sentences. Whenever there 
is an ellipsis, supply the missing word in the analysis. 

1. I saw the man that you spoke to. 

2. I saw the man you spoke to. 

3. Where are the toys we loved in childhood ? 

4. The prize we sought is won. 

5. The division Napoleon had depended on did not arrive in time. 

6. No gratitude had Charles for those who had lost their lands 

or risked their lives in his service. 

7. Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor iron bars a cage. 

8. The best thing I know between France and England is the sea. 

9. Lord Stafford mines for coal and salt, 
The Duke of Norfolk deals in malt, 
The Douglas in red herrings. 

10. There 's a blush on the apple, 
A tint oir the wing, 
And the bright wind whistles, 
And the pulses sting. 



ELLIPSIS IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 71 

11. Come, stack arms ; pile on the rails; 

Stir up the camp-fire bright. 

12. My golden spurs now bring to me, 
And bring to me my richest mail. 

13. Oh, pilot, 't is a fearful night ! 
There 's danger on the deep. 

14. A lady red upon the hill 

Her annual secret keeps ; 
A lady white within the field 
In placid lily sleeps. 

EXERCISE. 

95. Construct or find sentences, — three of which 
shall contain a conjunctive pronoun used as subject, three 
a conjunctive pronoun used as object complement, two 
a conjunctive pronoun used as the principal word of a 
prepositional phrase, and two in which the conjunctive 
pronoun is omitted. 

EXERCISE. 

96. Arrange the words of the first six sentences in col- 
umns as shown in the model. Analyze the sentences of 
the paragraph. 

Model. 

nouns. pronouns. adj. verbs. adv. prep. conj. 
God They serve well 

creatures who serve 

his 

1. They serve God well who serve his creatures. 

2. The rising blushes which the cheek o'erspread 

Are opening roses in a lily's bed. 

3. Flowers are the sweetest things that God ever made. 

4. Wealth is the least gift that God has bestowed on mankind. 

5. The river welcomes me like an old friend. The tune that it 

sings is the same that flowing water repeats all around the 
world. 

6. A touch of surprise is essential to perfect happiness. 

7. The firing on Fort Sumter aroused the North to the highest 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

pitch of excitement. Among the great mass of citizens there 
were no longer discussions of constitutional or legal rights. 
The flag of the nation had been fired upon, and that was 
enough. The President called for volunteers, and the people 
answered with promptness. Washington was in peril, and 
the troops hastened to its defense. The first blood of the 
war was shed in Baltimore ; a mob resisted the passage of 
the Northern regiments. That city was forcibly occupied. 
Washington was garrisoned and fortified. It remained a 
walled town four years. 
Adapted from McLaughlin's History of the United States. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

97. (a) Knowledge is the wing wherewith we fly to heaven. 

(b) One never forgets the home where he lived during 

childhood. 

(c) Near the spot where Tell leaped ashore now stands a 

chapel. 

(d) That was a glorious moment "when Aurora drew back 

the curtain of the night. 

In the clause in (a), substitute " with which " for wherewith. 
What does " with which " modify ? What kind of modifier is this 
phrase ? Does the word wherewith modify the same word as the 
phrase ? In (b), what words could you substitute for where ? 
What do these words modify ? What kind of modifier are these 
words ? What kind of modifier is the word "where ? In (d), what 
words could you substitute for when ? What does the phrase mod- 
ify ? What, then, does when modify? What kind of modifier is it? 

What word does the clause in (a) modify ? What kind of modi- 
fier is the clause ? What word connects the clause to the word it 
modifies ? What word serves as a connective in (b) ? in (c) ? 
in (d) ? 

In these sentences there are words which modify the 
verbs in the clauses, and at the same time connect the 
Conjunctive clauses to the words the clauses modify. As 
Adverbs. modifiers, they are adverbs ; and as connectives, 
they are conjunctions. They are called conjunctive ad- 
verbs. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 73 

A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB IS AN ADVERB THAT CONNECTS THE 
CLAUSE IN WHICH IT IS A MODIFIER TO THE WORD WHOSE 
MEANING THE CLAUSE MODIFIES. 

EXERCISE. 

98. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " I know a bank where the wild thyme blows " is a 
complex, declarative sentence. "I" is the bare subject unmodified; 
" know a bank where the wild thyme blows " is the complete pre- 
dicate. " Know bank " is the bare predicate, composed of the copula- 
attribute " know " and the object complement " bank." The sentence 
is, therefore, of the third type. The copula-attribute is unmodified. 
" Bank " is modified by the adjective " a " and the adjective clause 
"where the wild thyme blows." Of the clause, "the wild thyme" 
is the complete subject; and "blows" is the unmodified predicate. 
The bare subject is modified by the adjectives " the " and " wild." 
" Where" connects the clause to the word it modifies, and is a modi- 
fier of the copula-attribute " blows." 

1. There is a National Cemetery on the ground where the battle 

of Gettysburg was fought. 

2. At a time when no white settlers dwelt beyond the Alleghanies, 

Boone entered Kentucky. 

3. He does not know the name of the city whence he came. 

4. I remember the day when I had my first pair of boots. 

5. In the tropics, where the heat is intense, little meat is eaten. 

6. I remember, I remember, 
The house where I was born. 

7. For a cap and bells our lives we pay, 
Bubbles we buy with a whole soul's tasking. 

8. Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them 

Volley'd and thundered. 

9. Now has the lingering month at last gone by. 

10. A brazen altar stood beneath their feet, 
Whereon a thin flame flickered in the wind. 

11. Every night I go abroad 
Afar into the land of Nod. 

12. He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat ; 
He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judgment seat. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. Of all the boys that were schoolmates then 

There are only you and I. 

14. The meanest floweret of the vale, 
The simplest note that swells the gale, 
The common sun, the air, the skies, 
To him were opening Paradise. 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

99. In the last lesson conjunctive adverbs were used 
to introduce adjective clauses. Conjunctive adverbs have 
another and more common use. 

(a) When I was sick and lay abed, 
I had two pillows at my head. 

(b) A guest is unwelcome when he stays too long. 

(c) Count the cost before you go to Rome. 

(d) After the tempest has passed, the calm will come. 

(e) Strike while the iron is hot. 

(f) Where the leader of a flock goes, the sheep follow. 

(g) Where Mary went, the lamb went too. 

Show that in each of the sentences there is an adverbial modifier 
which contains a subject and a predicate. 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate 
and having the use of an adverb is a clause. 

A sentence containing an adverbial clause is complex. 

EXERCISE. 

100. Analyze the following sentences, following the 
models already given. 

1. All will be gay, when noontide wakes anew 

The buttercups. 

2. Care keeps his watch in every old man's eye; 
And where care lodges, sleep will never lie. 

3. When stars pursue their solemn flight, 
Oft in the middle of the night, 

A strain of music visits me. 

4. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 75 

5. Noiseless falls the foot of time 
That only treads on flowers. 

6. The west is broken into bars 
Of orange, gold, and gray; 

Gone is the sun, come are the stars, 
And night infolds the day. 

7. True hope is swift, and flies with swallows' wings; 
Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings. 

8. Put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your powder dry. 

9. Fortune makes a fool of him whom she makes her darling. 
10. Hardly had the war begun, when England issued a " proclama- 
tion of neutrality." This acknowledged the belligerency 
of the Confederacy. The North had hoped for the sym- 
pathy of the English in a contest manifestly in the interest 
of freedom. When England so quickly issued this procla- 
mation, there was considerable resentment. France soon 
took the same step, and other states followed. 

101. So far in the study of adverbial clauses, they have 
been used to denote time and place. But there are many 
other relations that may be expressed by these clauses. 

(a) If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the pit. 

(b) Manufacturing towns spring up near coal mines, because 

coal is a very important source of power. 

(c) Though thy smile be lost to sight, 

To mem'ry thou art dear. 

(d) We sow that we may reap. 

(e) Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes him. 

What is the idea expressed by the clause in (a) ? Does the clause 
modify both ? pit ? shall fall ? Is the clause adjective or ad- 
verbial ? In (b), does the clause modify the subject or the predi- 
cate ? What idea is expressed by the clause ? What idea is ex- 
pressed by the clause in (c) ? in (d) ? in (e) ? Are the clauses 
adjective or adverbial ? 

Does If seem to you to have an adverbial idea in it ? Has it a 
connective value ? Does because connect ? Does it modify ? Does 
Though connect ? Does it modify ? Does that connect ? Does it 
modify ? 

Adverbial clauses may express a great variety of ideas. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The principal ones are time, place, condition, conces- 
sion, cause, purpose, and result. 

Such words as if, though, because, and that when it 
introduces adverbial clauses, are connectives ; but they 
have no adverb idea in them. They are, therefore, con- 
junctions. 

A CONJUNCTION IS A WOED THAT CONNECTS WORDS, PHRASES, 
CLAUSES, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

EXERCISE. 

102. Analyze the following sentences. Tell what idea 
is expressed by the clauses. Tell whether the connective 
is a conjunctive pronoun, a conjunctive adverb, or a con- 
junction. 

1. Justice is always violent to the offending party ; for every man 

is innocent in his own eyes. 

2. In his high place he had borne himself so well that all had 

feared him, and most had loved him. 

3. Quarrels would not last long if the fault were only on one side. 

4. When the fight begins within himself, 

A man 's worth something. 

5. A man who has nothing to do is the devil's playfellow. 

6. If ever household affections and love are graceful things, they 

are graceful in the poor. The ties that bind the wealthy and 
the proud at home may be forged on earth ; but those which 
link the poor man to his humble hearth are of the true metal 
and bear the stamp of heaven. 

7. The woods are glistening fresh and fair as if they had been 

new-created overnight. The water sparkles with merriment, 
and tiny waves are dancing and singing all along the shore. 
Scarlet berries of the mountain ash hang around the lake like a 
necklace of coral. A pair of kingfishers dart back and forth 
across the bay, in flashes of living blue. A black eagle swings 
silently around his circle, far up in the cloudless sky. The 
air is full of pleasant sounds, but there is no noise. The world 
is full of joyful life, but there is no crowd and no confusion. 
All is fresh and sweet, calm and clear and bright. 

Henry van Dyke. 



CLAUSES OF DEGREE 77 

8. It is the Indian summer. The rising sun blazes through the 
misty air like a conflagration. A yellowish, smoky haze fills 
the atmosphere, 

And a filmy mist 
Lies like a silver lining on the sky. 

The wind is soft and low. It wafts to us the odor of forest 
leaves, that hang wilted on the dripping branches, or drop into 
the stream. Their gorgeous tints are gone, as if the autumnal 
rains had washed them out. Orange, yellow, and scarlet, all 
are changed to one melancholy russet hue. The birds, too, 
have taken wing, and have left their roofless dwellings. Not 
the whistle of a robin, not the twitter of an eavesdropping 
swallow, not the carol of one sweet, familiar voice. All gone 
Only the dismal cawing of a crow, as he sits and curses that 
the harvest is over ; or the chit-chat of an idle squirrel, the 
noisy denizen of a hollow tree, the mendicant friar of a large 
parish, the absolute monarch of a dozen acorns. 

Longfellow. 

CLAUSES OF DEGREE. 

103. (a) I am very proud of my mother. 

(b) He is not so proud of his mother as he should be. 

(c) I am as proud of my mother as I can be. 

(d) I am more proud of my mother than you are (proud) 

of yours. 

(e) I am prouder of my mother than you (are proud) 

of yours. 

(f) No one could be prouder of his mother than Barrie 

("was proud of his). 

In (a), what adverb modifies proud ? In (b) ? What does so 
tell in (b) ? In (b), what besides so tells how proud ? Does the 
adverbial clause seem to you to modify proud, or so proud, or so ? 
If it modifies any one of them, it must be what kind of clause ? 
What does it tell ? In (d), what adverb modifies proud ? In (e), 
what in the word prouder takes the place of more in (d) ? What 
do the clauses in (d), (e), and (f) modify? What do they tell? 
What words are used to connect these clauses to the words they 
modify ? 

Do you think you would use the word proud in the clause in 
(d) ? Is it a common thing to omit words in clauses like those in (e) 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

and (f ) ? Are these words necessary to the analysis of the sentence ? 
What is this kind of omission called ? 

When two objects having a common quality are com- 
pared, an adverbial clause indicating degree is very fre- 
quent. Clauses of degree are generally introduced by 
the conjunctive adverbs as and than. 

Ellipsis of the predicate attribute, or of the copula and 
the predicate attribute, is very common in clauses of de- 
gree. Elided words must always be supplied in analysis. 

EXERCISE. 

104. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " The night was as black as pitch " is a complex, declara- 
tive sentence, — complex, because . . . ; declarative, because . . . 
The complete subject is " The night." The complete predicate is 
" was as black as pitch." The bare subject is " night," modified by 
the adjective " The." The bare predicate is " was black," composed 
of the copula " was " and the predicate attribute " black." The sen- 
tence is, therefore, of the first type. The predicate attribute is 
modified by the adverb " as." " As " is modified by the adverbial 
clause expressing degree. Of the clause " pitch" is the subject; 
" is " understood is the copula ; and " black " understood is the predi- 
cate attribute. The second " as " is the connective. 

1. The sun was never so bright, and the piney air was balmier 

sweet than dreams. 

2. Here Skugg lies snug 
As a bug in a rug. 

3. The human body is a steed that goes freest under a light rider, 

and lightest of all riders is a cheerful heart. 

4. I envy the good fortune of all walkers, and feel like joining 

myself to every tramp that comes along. 

5. A little foot never supported a great character. 

6. A plank had drifted against the bank, and upon this the little 

creature scrambled out, as dry as the cat at home under .the 
roaring kitchen stove. 

7. A cold, unkind word checks and withers the blossom of the 

dearest love, as the delicate rings of the vine are troubled by 
the faintest breeze. 



NOUN CLAUSES 79 

8. A barren, stony hillside slopes gradually to the marsh where 
the wrens live. Here I was met by a fifth deceiver, a kill- 
deer plover. The killdeer's crocodile tears are bigger and 
more touchingly genuine than even the quail's. And, besides 
all her tricks, she has a voice that fairly drips woe. 

NOUN CLAUSES. 

105. (a) Many believe the statement. 

(b) Many believe that there never was a good war. 

(c) That there ever was a good war is doubtful. 

(d) The truth is that there cannot be a good war. 

(e) It is true that there cannot be a good war. 

(f) The truth that there never has been a good war 

is held by many. 

In (a), what is the object complement ? What is the object of 
believe in (b) ? Has this object a subject and a predicate ? What 
is it then ? What is the subject of (c) ? What is the attribute in 
(d) ? What is the real subject in (e) ? What use has the clause in 
(f) ? What class of words is usually subject, object, attribute, and 
appositive ? What, then, is a good name for these clauses ? 

Does that seem to you to have as much meaning as the connec- 
tives, when, if, because, and as ? Does it seem to have any mean- 
ing ? Can it be omitted from some of the sentences ? 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a predi- 
cate, and having the use of a noun, is a clause. A sen- 
tence containing a noun clause is complex. 

A noun clause may be a subject, an object complement, 
an attribute complement, or an appositive modifier. 

Most noun clauses are introduced by that. When the 
word that is used to introduce a noun clause, " T h at » 
it has no meaning or connective value. It is NJim duclng 
termed an introductory word. Clauses. 

Many noun clauses have no introductory word. In the 

illustrative sentences, " that " could be omitted from all 

except (c) and (f). 

A CLAUSE IS A PART OF A SENTENCE CONTAINING A SUBJECT, 
AND A PREDICATE, AND HAVING THE USE OF AN ADJECTIVE, AN 
ADVERB, OR A NOUN. 



80 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS BUT ONE SUB- 
JECT AND PREDICATE, EITHER OF WHICH MAY BE COMPOUND. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS TWO OR MORE 
INDEPENDENT STATEMENTS, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

A COMPLEX SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS ONE INDEPEND- 
ENT PROPOSITION AND ONE OR MORE CLAUSES. 

Sometimes one of the independent propositions of a 
compound sentence is modified by a clause, and so is com- 
plex. In such a case the sentence is said to be com- 
pound-complex . 

Example. It is not work that kills men ; it is worry. 



NOUN CLAUSES AS ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 

106. If we arrange the sentences containing noun clauses 
under their types, the relation of the clause to the whole 
sentence will be clear. 



First Type. 






subject. 


COPULA. 


PREDICATE ATTRIBU1 


(a) That there ever 






was a good war 


is 


doubtful. 


(b) The truth 


is 


that there cannot 
be a good war. 



COPULA-ATTRIBUTE. 



i held. 



(c) It (that there cannot 
be a good war) is true. 

Second Type, 
subject. 

(d) The truth (that there 
never was a good war) 

Third Type, 
subject. copula-attribute. object complement. 

(e) Many believe that there never was a good war. 

The subject of the sentence in (a) is " That there ever 
was a good war." It is the complete subject, and it is 
the bare subject. The noun clause is one of the necessary 
elements of a sentence. 



ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES 81 

In (e), the sentence lacks an essential element without 
the noun clause ; it lacks the object complement. 

In (b), the noun clause is the attribute complement, 
one of the necessary elements of a sentence. 

In (c), the noun clause is the real subject, a necessary 
element of the sentence. 

In (d), the noun clause is an appositive modifier of a 
noun. 

EXERCISE. 

107. Frame a sentence about printing that shall have a 
noun clause used as a subject ; about the Suez canal that 
shall have a noun clause as object ; about air-ships that 
shall have a noun clause used as attribute complement ; 
about a fact that shall have a noun clause as appositive 
modifier. 

EXERCISE. 

108. Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " That there ever was a good war is doubtful " is a com- 
plex, declarative sentence, — complex, because . . . ; declarative, be- 
cause . . . The complete subject is " That there ever was a good 
war " ; the complete predicate is " is doubtful " ; composed of the 
copula " is " and the predicate attribute " doubtful." The sentence is, 
therefore, of the first type. Both copula and attribute are unmodi- 
fied. Of the noun clause the complete subject is " a good war " ; and 
the complete predicate is "was ever." The bare subject is " war," 
modified by the adjectives "a" and "good." The bare predicate 
is the copula-attribute " was." It is modified by the adverb " ever." 
" There " is an introductory word ; and " That " introduces the noun 
clause. 

Note. When the verb is or was denotes the attribute of existence, 
the verb is attributive, and forms the copula-attribute of a sentence. 
This sentence might read, " That a good war ever existed is doubt- 
ful." 

1. That the sun is a globe of molten matter is generally believed. 

2. Cornwallis learned too late that Washington was marching 

toward Yorktown. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. Observers have found that great flocks of migratory birds fly 

at night. 

4. Money is not essential to a gentleman. 

5. It is now conceded that the United States will soon lead the 

whole world in commerce. 

6. The story was spread that they had mysteriously disappeared. 

7. One hardly knew that such poverty existed. 

8. A gentleman never dodges ; his eyes look straight forward. 

9. Emerson said that great men write their names on the world. 

10. Caesar is born, and for ages we have a Roman Empire. 

11. Statistics show that every third generation is a ditch-digger. 

12. He spake well who said that graves are the footsteps of 

angels. 

13. And 'tis my faith that ev'ry flower 

Enjoys the air it breathes. 

14. The night was thick and hazy 
When the Piccadilly Daisy 

Carried down the crew and captain in the sea ; 

And I think the water drowned 'em, 

For they never, never found 'em, 
And I know they did n't come ashore with me. 

NOUN CLAUSES. 

109. (a) " Will they be Indians ? " inquired my brother. 

(b) " They won't be Indians," I replied at last. 

(c) " Are you quite sure ? " Harold asked. 

(d) " Quite," I answered. 

(e) My brother said that they would not be Indians. 

What is the subject of sentence (a) ? the object complement ? Is 
the object a phrase or a clause ? What is the object complement in 
(b) ? in (c) ? in (d) ? in (e) ? What kind of sentences are they 
all ? What kind of quotations are in the first four sentences ? in the 
last? 

In reported conversation the words that are spoken 
usually form noun clauses that are object complements. 
This is true whether the report gives the exact words of 
the speaker or not ; that is, whether it is a direct or an 
indirect quotation. 



NOUN CLAUSES 83 

In conversation people omit many words. In (d), the 
full sentence would be " 4 1 am quite sure,' I answered." 
Elided words must be supplied in analysis. 



EXERCISE. 

110. Analyze the following sentences. 

1. " Diligence is the mother of good luck," said Franklin. 

2. The Venerable Bede was called the "Father of English 

Prose. ,, 

3. He translated the Gospel of St. John into English so that the 

uneducated read it. 

4. He worked on this translation until the last day of his life. 

5. At last, when evening came, he closed his eyes in weariness. 

6. The young man said, " There is yet one sentence, dear mas- 

ter." 

7. " Take your pen and write quickly," said Bede. 

8. " Now it is finished," said the youth. 

9. " Yes, it is finished," answered Bede. 

10. He turned to the altar, chanted a few words of praise to God, 
and closed his eyes forever. 

111. (a) Is he rich ? (h) Say if he be rich. 

(b) Is it so ? (i) Tell me "whether it is so. 

(c) Who goes there ? (j) I must know "who goes there. 

(d) What are you doing? (k) The question is "what are you 

doing. 

(e) Where has he been ? (1) He told me where he had 

been. 

(f) Why do birds sing ? (m) They have no sense of why 

they sing. 

(g) Why did he do it ? (n) It is a question why he did it. 

In the first column are direct questions ; in the other 
the same questions are found in an indirect form. Indi- 
rect questions are noun clauses. They may be object 
complements, as in (h), (i), (j), and (1) ; real subject, as 
in (n) ; attribute complement, as in (k) ; principal term 
of a prepositional phrase, as in (m). 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

When the question is about the truth of the assertion made by the 
copula, the indirect question has an introductory word if or "whether. 
Other questions have the same interrogative word, whether the ques- 
tion is direct or indirect ; and the interrogative word — pronoun, 
adjective, or adverb — has the same use, whether the question is 
direct or indirect. The verb of which a quotation or a question is 
the object complement usually belongs to one of these three classes : 
it is 

1. a verb of saying or speaking ; as, tells, asks, answers ; 

2. a verb denoting some action of the senses, as, hears, sees ; 

3. a verb denoting some action of the mind ; as, thinks, believes. 

EXERCISE. 

112. Write direct questions about the following sub- 
jects: surgery, General Wolfe, France, Cubans, a 
Scotch collie, homing pigeons, graphite, a stream, 
Eiffel tower. 

Change the sentences which you have made so that the 
questions will be indirect. Use three of the indirect 
questions as object complements ; three as subjects ; two 
as attribute complements. 

EXERCISE. 

113. Analyze the following sentences. 

1. Tell me who were there. 

2. Show me what you have in your pockets. 

3. He did not understand how a halloon floated. 

4. It 's surprising to me how my nephew despises little girls. 

5. Tom proved that he had in him the lasting stuff of a true man 

and a hero. 

6. I knew how sweet the water tasted from that kind of a cup. 

7. It is wonderful how soon a piano gets into a log hut on the 

frontier. , 

8. Over in the meadow, 

In a hole in a tree, 
Lived a mother-bluebird 

And her little bluebirds three. 



PARTICIPLES 85 

" Sing ! " said the mother ; 

" We sing," said the three ; 
So they sang and were glad, 
In the hole in the tree. 

Over in the meadow, 

Where the clear pools shine, 
Lived a green mother-frog 

And her little froggies nine. 
" Croak ! " said the mother ; 

" We croak," said the nine ; 
So they croaked and they plashed, 

Where the clear pools shine. 



PARTICIPLES. 

114. (a) The United States, stretching along the coast, was still 
a child among nations. 

(b) Being wise and honest, having learned tact and patience 

from the trials of the Revolution, Washington was 
well fitted for the duties now laid upon him. 

(c) Having elected him President, the people gave him their 

loyal support. 

What is the bare subject and predicate of (a) ? What phrase 
modifies the bare subject ? What is the leading word of this phrase ? 
From what part of speech is stretching derived ? What modifies 
stretching ? 

In (b), what does the phrase Being -wise and honest modify ? 
What is the leading word of this phrase ? From what is*it derived ? 
In the sentence "Washington was wise and honest," what is the 
construction of "wise and honest"? "Wise and honest in the 
phrase have the same relation to Being as they have to " was " 
in the sentence. " Stretching " and " Being " are both derived 
from verbs ; they retain some of the characteristics of verbs, 
but they modify nouns, and are, therefore, adjective modi- 
fiers. Such words are called participles. 

In (b), having learned tact and patience describes whom? 
What are the leading words ? What is their object complement ? 
These words together have, then, some of the characteristics of a 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

verb-phrase, but they modify a noun, and so have the use of an 
adjective. They are a verbal adjective, or a participle. 

Is laid, in (b), a verbal adjective ? Show its verbal character- 
istics and its adjective use. What is it, then ? 

In (c), Having elected describes whom ? What relation has 
him to this participle? What relation has President to this 
participle ? What characteristics of a verb has this participle ? 

What three kinds of complements may follow a participle ? May 
a participle be modified as a verb is modified ? What may'a par- 
ticiple modify ? 

A participle is derived from a verb ; it may be modified 
like a verb ; it may be completed by an attribute, object, 
or objective complement ; and it is an adjective modifier 
of a noun or pronoun. 

A PARTICIPLE IS A VERBAL ADJECTIVE. 

A phrase in which the leading word is a participle is 
called a participial phrase. 

EXERCISE. 

115. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. "Having elected him President, the people gave him 
their loyal support " is a simple, declarative sentence. The com- 
plete subject is " the people, Having elected him President ; " and 
the complete predicate is " gave him their loyal support." The bare 
subject is " people," modified by the adjective " the," and the parti- 
cipial phras§ " Having elected him President." Of this phrase the 
base is " Having elected." The participle is completed by the object 
complement " him " and the objective complement " President." 
The bare predicate is "gave support," composed of the copula- 
attribute " gave " and the object complement " support." The sen- 
tence is, therefore, of the third type. " Gave " is modified by the 
indirect object "him." "Support" is modified by the adjective 
" loyal " and the possessive " their." 

1. A penny saved is a penny earned. 

2. The valley, stretching far below, is white with blossoming 

cherry-trees. 



INFINITIVES 87 

3. God is a shower to the heart burned up with grief. 

4. God is a sun to the face deluged with tears. 

5. Kindled by the smile of his celestial mistress, Marquette knew 

no fear. 

6. Plying their paddles, they passed the Straits of Mackinac. 

7. On either hand rolled the prairie, dotted with groves, brows- 

ing elk, and deer. 

8. They glided calmly down the tranquil stream, by islands 

choked with trees and matted with entangling vines. 

9. Before them a wide and rapid current coursed athwart their 

way, by the foot of lofty heights wrapped thick in forests. 

10. They steered their canoes on the eddies of the Mississippi. 

11. Having gained truth, keep truth. 

12. The tongue is ever turning to the aching tooth. 

13. A poor man served by thee shall make thee rich. 

14. A sick man helped by thee shall make thee strong. 

15. A child's kiss set on thy sighing lips shall make thee glad. 

16. Up from the meadows, rich with corn, 
Clear in the cool September morn, 

The clustered spires of Frederick stand, 
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 

Whittier. 

INFINITIVES. 

116. (a) To yield is often a mark of strength. 

(b) To be prejudiced is to be weak. 

(c) Learn of the little nautilus to sail. 

(d) My father taught me to know things definitely. 

(e) To make a shiftless boy a thrifty man requires skill and 

patience. 

From what part of speech are be, sail, know, derived ? In (d), 
what does definitely modify ? What is things the object of ? In 
(e), what is the object of make ? What is the objective comple- 
ment ? What class of words are completed by object and objective 
complements ? These words, then, have some of the characteristics 
of a verb. 

In (b), what is the relation of weak to be ? Think of the sen- 
tence " He is weak." What relation has prejudiced to be ? This 
form of the verb may be completed by an attribute complement. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? of (e) ? What is the object 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

of Learn in (c) ? of taught in (d) ? What is the attribute com- 
plement of is in (b) ? What words are usually subjects and objects ? 
Then these words, which have many characteristics of verbs, 
have the uses of nouns. They are verbal nouns, and are 
called infinitives. 

AN INFINITIVE IS A VERBAL NOUN. 

An infinitive, like a noun, may be used as 

1. a subject ; 

2. an object complement ; 

3. an attribute complement. 

An infinitive, like a verb, may itself be completed by 

1. an object complement ; 

2. an attribute complement ; 

3. an objective complement. 

An infinitive, like a verb, may be modified by 

1. an abverb ; 

2. an adverbial phrase ; 

3. an adverbial clause. 

EXERCISE. 

117. Frame two sentences in which an infinitive is 
subject ; two in which it is object ; two in which it is an 
attribute. In one of these sentences have the infinitive 
completed by an attribute complement ; in one by an 
object complement ; in one by an objective complement. 

EXERCISE. 

118. Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " My father taught me to know things definitely " is 
a simple, declarative sentence. The complete subject is " My 
father " ; and the complete predicate is " taught me to know things 
definitely." The bare subject is " father," modified by the posses- 
sive modifier " My." The bare predicate is " taught to know things 
definitely," composed of the copula-attribute " taught " and the object 
complement, " to know things definitely." The sentence is, there- 



INFINITIVES ENDING IN ING OR GERUNDS 89 

fore, of the third type. " Taught " is modified by the indirect 
object " me." " To know " is completed by the object complement 
" things " ; and it is modified by the adverb " definitely." 

1. The House of Representatives refused to pass bills of supply. 

2. To get good out of all things and all men is the mark of a 

great man. 

3. To select the second best in life is to dull one's instincts for 

higher things. 

4. It is not easy to feel honest joy at the success of another. 

5. The king meant to try the question with America. 

6. The people refused to pay taxes. > 

7. To lose one's temper is to weaken one's power. 

8. To lose courage is to grow old before one's time. 

9. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 

INFINITIVES ENDING IN ING OR GERUNDS. 

119. (a) Rhyming easily does not make a poet. 

(b) Reading good stories is profitable. 

(c) Being well is life's greatest blessing. 

(d) We learn writing only by persistent practice. 

(e) By making Lincoln President, the people showed their 

trust in plain common-sense. 

(f) Doing nothing for others is the undoing of ourselves. 

(g) Religion is using everything for God. 

Find in each sentence a word derived from a verb. Show that 
each of these words still retains some of the characteristics of a 
verb. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? of (c) ? of (f) ? What is 
the object complement in (d) ? the attribute in (g) ? the principal 
word of the first prepositional phrase in (e) ? All these words have 
noun uses. They are verbal nouns, or infinitives. 

Infinitives that end in ing are called gerunds. 

Care must be taken to distinguish gerunds from par- 
ticiples. A participle is an adjective ; a gerund is a noun. 
The use of a word, not its spelling, determines what it is 
in each case. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE. 

120. Analyze the following sentences. After analysis, 
select the participles and gerunds, giving the reason for 
your classification. 

Model. " Next to being a great poet is the power of understand- 
ing one " is a simple, declarative sentence. The complete subject is 
"the power of understanding one"; and the complete predicate is 
" is next to being a great poet." The bare subject is " power." It 
is modified by the adjective " the " and the prepositional phrase "of 
understanding one." " Understanding " is the principal word, and 
it is completed by the object complement " one." The bare predi- 
cate is "is Next," composed of the copula "is" and the attribute 
complement " Next." The sentence is, therefore, of the first type. 
The attribute complement " Next " is modified by the preposi- 
tional phrase "to being a great poet." Of this phrase "being" 
is the principal word, and it is completed by the attribute comple- 
ment, "poet." "Poet" is modified by the adjectives "a" and 
"great." 

1. Being perfectly natural and composed, he dispelled all sus- 

picion. 

2. We saw the big moon rising lazily and warm across the lake. 

3. By rising early, he did his day's work before noon. 

4. Hearing of this action by Parliament, the Virginia House 

passed a series of resolves. 

5. Upon hearing of this action by Parliament, the Virginia House 

passed a series of resolves. 

6. They denounced a standing army. 

7. A small guard, irritated beyond endurance, fired into the 

crowd. 

8. The first act was the Boston Port Bill, closing the port of 

Boston. 

9. The second act changed the charter by extending the power 

of the crown. 

10. Town-meetings for electing officers were held only with the 

governor's permission. 

11. A fourth bill provided for quartering troops in America. 

12. In England a designing courtier was intent upon making him- 

self king. 

13. We never see the sunrise by looking into the west. 



INFINITIVES ENDING IN ING OR GERUNDS 91 

14. The fragrant water-lily lies moored in the golden August 

weather. 

15. Longfellow's tender way of doing a kindness to others was 

most exquisite. 

16. Bland as the morning breath of June 

The southwest breezes play; 
And, through its haze, the winter noon 

Seems warm as summer's day. 
The snow-plumed Angel of the North 

Has dropp'd his icy spear ; 
Again the mossy earth looks forth, 

Again the streams gush clear. 

The fox his hillside cell forsakes, 

The muskrat leaves his nook, 
The bluebird in the meadow-brakes 
Is singing with the brook. 
" Bear up, O Mother Nature ! " cry 

Bird, breeze, and streamlet free ; 
" Our winter voices prophesy 
Of summer days to thee." 

The Night is mother of the Day, 

The Winter of the Spring, 
And ever upon old Decay 

The greenest mosses cling. 
Behind the cloud the starlight lurks, 

Through showers the sunbeams fall ; 
For God, who loveth all his works, 

Has left his Hope with all. 

Whittier. 



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